following are the two sources of finance that an established company can opt to expand its production capacity-
- Issue of shares- the company can issue share (equity and preference) as per its requirement in order to finance its expansion project. company has to pay an annual dividend on these shares. the decision regarding providing dividend is totally in the hands of management.

- issue of debentures- another source through which a company can finance its project is Debentures, it is th fixed charge liability against which company has to pay interest on regular intervals. debenture may be issued for short term and long term period but practically it is issued for a long term period.

other sources are loan from banks, loans from financial institutions etc

As a finance manager of the company, I would advice the directors to issue the preference shares as by issuing preference shares, a company is benefited in the following ways.

1. Lifetime retention - A company need is not bound to repay the preference share capital amount during its lifetime.

2. No charge on company's assets - The preference shareholders have no right on the assets of the concerned company. So in this manner, they have no right to claim any amount (by selling-off company's assets) in case the company fails to make dividend payments.

3. No obligation - In case, the company incurs losses, then it is not required to pay dividend to its preference shareholders. 

On the other hand, debentures will not be chosen because of the following demerits of debentures.

1. ​ The legal boundation of a company to pay interest on debentures increases its payment obligations .
2. The borrowing capacity of a company gets limited with further issue of debentures.

Universal Adult Franchise means that the right to vote should be given to all adult citizens without the discrimination of caste, class, colour, religion or gender. It is based on equality, which is a basic principle of democracy.

The young trees are personified in the poem. They seem to be running in the opposite direction when seen through the window of the moving car. The movement is juxtaposed with the expression on the mother’s face i.e. ashen like a corpse. The movement of the children and the trees is in stark contrast with the stillness associated with the mother.

The branch of physics dealing with the properties and behaviour of light is called optics. Light is a form of energy which helps us to see the objects.

Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength which can be detected by the human eye. It is a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum and radiation given off by stars like the sun.

Linear Expansion means expansion in length due to increase in temperature. Linear expansion means fractional change in length i.e. how the length is changing with respect to original length.

As we can seefrom above images the length has been increased from

l to l+Δl.                                              

Coefficient of Linear Expansion is a parameter which tells us how the size of the object changes with change in temperature. It is defined as degree of linear expansion divided by the change in temperature.

• If the solid is in the form of long rod, then for small change in temperature, ΔT, the fractional change in length, Δl/l, is directly proportional to ΔT.

Mathematically can be written as:-

Where α_l= the coefficient of linear expansion

It is denoted by α_l

• It is characteristic of the material of the rod.It varies for different substance.

PUBLIC DEPOSITS: The deposits that are raised by company direct from the public are known as public deposits. The rate of interest offered on public deposits are higher than the rate of interest on bank deposits. This is regulated by the R.B.I. and cannot exceed 25% of share capital and reserves.

MERITS:

1. No charge on assets: The company does not have to mortgage its assets.
2. Tax Saving: Interest paid on public deposits is tax deductable, hence there is tax saving.
3. Simple procedure: The procedure for obtaining public deposits is simpler than share and Debenture.
4. Control: They do not have voting right therefore the control of the company is not diluted.

LIMITATIONS:

1. For Short Term Finance: The maturity period is short. The company cannot depend on them for long term.
2. Limited fund: The quantum of public deposit is limited because of legal restrictions 25% of share capital and free reserves.
3. Not Suitable for New Company: New company generally find difficulty to raise funds through public deposits.

The size of the territory and per capita income are not directly related to human development :- Often Smaller Countries have done better than larger ones in human development. Similarly, relatively poorer nations have been ranked higher than richer neighbours in terms of human development.

For example Sri Lanka, Trinidad and Tobago have a higher rank than India in the human development index despite having smaller economies. Similarly, within India, Kerala performs much better than Punjab and Gujarat in human development despite having lower per capita income.

क्षेत्र और प्रति व्यक्ति आय का आकार सीधे मानव विकास से संबंधित नहीं हैं: - अक्सर छोटे देशों ने मानव विकास में बड़े लोगों की तुलना में बेहतर काम किया है। इसी तरह, अपेक्षाकृत गरीब देशों को मानव विकास के मामले में अमीर पड़ोसियों से अधिक स्थान दिया गया है।

उदाहरण के लिए, श्रीलंका, त्रिनिदाद और टोबैगो के पास छोटी अर्थव्यवस्थाओं के बावजूद मानव विकास सूचकांक में भारत से उच्च रैंक है। इसी तरह, भारत के भीतर, केरल प्रति व्यक्ति आय कम होने के बावजूद मानव विकास में पंजाब और गुजरात से बेहतर प्रदर्शन करता है।

Retained Profits: For any company, the amount of earnings retained within the business has a direct impact on the amount of dividends. Profit re-invested as retained earnings is profit that could have been paid as a dividend. The management of many companies believes that retained earnings are funds which do not cost anything, although this is not true. However, it is true that the use of retained earnings as a source of funds does not lead to a payment of cash. The dividend policy of the company is in practice determined by the directors. From their standpoint, retained earnings are an attractive source of finance because investment projects can be undertaken without involving either the shareholders or any outsiders. The use of retained earnings as opposed to new shares or debentures avoids issue costs. The use of retained earnings avoids the possibility of a change in control resulting from an issue of new shares. Another factor that may be of importance is the financial and taxation position of the company’s shareholders. For example, because of taxation considerations, they would rather make a capital profit (which will only be taxed when shares are sold) than receive current income, and then finance through retained earnings would be preferred to other methods.

Advantages of Retained Earnings

• The management of many companies believe that retained earnings are funds which do not cost anything, although this is not true. However, it is true that the use of retained earnings as a source of funds does not lead to a payment of cash.
• The dividend policy of the company is in practice determined by the directors. From their standpoint, retained earnings are an attractive source of finance because investment projects can be undertaken without involving either the shareholders or any outsiders.
• The use of retained earnings as opposed to new shares or debentures avoids issue costs. The use of retained earnings avoids the possibility of a change in control resulting from an issue of new shares.

• Another factor that may be of importance is the financial and taxation position of the company’s shareholders. If, for example, because of taxation considerations, they would rather make a capital profit (which will only be taxed when shares are sold) than receive current income, then finance through retained earnings would be preferred to other methods.

Disadvantages of Retained Earnings

• A company must restrict its self-financing through retained profits because shareholders should be paid a reasonable dividend, in line with realistic expectations, even if the directors would rather keep the funds for re-investing.
• At the same time, a company that is looking for extra funds will not be expected by investors (such as banks) to pay generous dividends, nor over-generous salaries to owner-directors.
• Scope of retained earnings is limited by amount of profits. A loss incurring firm has no source called retained earnings.

• The sources for raising borrowed funds include loans from commercial banks, loans from financial institutions, issue of debentures, public deposits and trade credit.
• Such sources provide funds for a specified period, on certain terms and conditions and have to be repaid after the expiry of that period. A fixed rate of interest is paid by the borrowers on such funds.
• At times it puts a lot of burden on the business as payment of interest is to be made even when the earnings are low or when loss is incurred. Generally, borrowed funds are provided on the security of some fixed assets.

Economic factors – 

a) Agriculture

• The economic condition of the Islamic world, during medieval period was very prosperous.
• Agriculture was the principal occupation of the settled populations in the newly conquered territories
• The lands conquered by the Arabs that remained in the hands of the owners were subject to a tax (kharaj), which varied from half to a fifth of the produce, according to the conditions of cultivation.
• When non-Muslims started to convert to Islam to pay lower taxes, this reduced the income of the state. To address the shortfall, the caliphs first discouraged conversions and later adopted a uniform policy of taxation.
• Agricultural prosperity went hand in hand with political stability
• Islamic law gave tax concessions to people who brought land under cultivation.

b) Urbanisation 

• Islamic civilisation flourished as the number of cities grew phenomenally.
• Among this class of garrison-cities, called misr (the Arabic name for Egypt), were Kufa and Basra in Iraq, and Fustat and Cairo in Egypt.
• Their size and population surged, supported by an expansion in the production of foodgrains and raw materials such as cotton and sugar for urban manufactures
• A vast urban network developed, linking one town with another and forming a circuit.

c) Commerce

• Political unification and urban demand for foodstuffs and luxuries enlarged the circuit of exchange.
• Geography favoured the Muslim empire, which spread between the trading zones of the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean
• For five centuries, Arab and Iranian traders monopolised the maritime trade between China, India and Europe.
• This trade passed through two major routes, namely, the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf.
• High-value goods suitable for long-distance trade, such as spices, textile, porcelain and gunpowder, were shipped from India and China to the Red Sea ports of Aden and Aydhab and the Gulf ports of Siraf and Basra.

Let us consider a particle travel with constant speed from A to B in a circular path of radius r in a short time Δt

making an angular displacement Δθ as shown in figure.

distance S travelled is the arc length AB and it is given by,  S = v×Δt ..................(1)

Arc distance S also written geometrically as,   S = r×Δθ  ...........................(2)

from (1) and (2), we write ,  Δθ/Δt  = v/r  ...............(3)

Eqn.(3) is rate of angular displacement or angular velocity.

For small angular displacement made in short time Δt, we can write = dθ/dt = v/r  ......................(4)

In right side figure, velocity vectors at A and B are drawn by merging their initial points.

The angle between these vectors also Δθ.

from the right side figure, we write,  sin (Δθ/2) = (Δv/2) / v    or  Δv/2 = v sin(Δθ/2)  .................(5)

For small angle Δθ,  eqn.(5) is written as, Δv/2 = v Δθ/2   or Δv/Δθ = v   or     dv/dθ = v  .....................(6)

using eqn.(4) and eqn(6),    acceleration directed towards centre, dv/dt  = ( dv/dθ ) (dθ/dt) = v×(v/r) = ( v² / r )

If m is mass, then   force F = mass×acceleration = m×(v² / r )

The menstrual cycle is the reproductive cycle in a human female after puberty. The ovary releases one egg every month. The uterus also prepares itself every month to receive a fertilized egg. Various hormones are involved in controlling the cycle. The role of hormones is as follows:

1) Pituitary gland secretes Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) which stimulates the development of follicle.

2) The follicle cells then secretes estrogen. Increase in the level of estrogen, stimulates the thickening of endometrium in the uterus. Also, it leads to the secretion of Luteinizing hormone (LH) by the pituitary gland which causes ovulation.

3) The level of LH increase and this is followed by increase in the secretion of progesterone and the follicles develop to form corpus luteum.

4) The corpus luteum then secrets high level of progesterone preparing the uterus for implantation. The high level of estrogen and progesterone decreases the level of FSH and LH.

5) In case no implantation occurs, levels of progesterone and estrogen decreases resulting in the breakdown of endometrium marking the beginning of menstruation.

8) After the menstruation begins, a level of FSH and LH again rises resulting in the beginning of new menstrual cycle.
 

You can generate random numbers in Python by using random module. Python offers random module that can generate random numbers. These are pseudo-random number as the sequence of number generated depends on the seed. If the seeding value is same, the sequence will be the same.

The Salient Features of the Constitution (74th Amendment) Act, 1992:

(a) Constitution of Municipalities.

(b) Composition of Municipalities.

(c) Constitution of wards committees.

(d) Reservation of seats.

(e) Fixed duration of Municipalities.

(f) Power, Authority and responsibilities of Municipalities.

(g) Appointment of State Election Commission.

(h) Appointment of State Finance Commission.

(i) Constitution of Metropolitan and District Planning Committees.

Action has been taken by the State/Union Territory Governments to set up State Finance Commission/State Election Commissions. All states set up their Finance Commissions. Most of the State Finance Commissions submitted their report to the concerned State Government.

The concerned states accepted nearly all the recommendations made by their respective finance commissions. All State Governments/Union Territories set up their Election Commissions for conducting elections to urban Local Bodies.

The passage of the Constitution (73rd Amendment) Act, 1992 marks a new era in the federal democratic set up of the country and provides constitutional status to the Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs).

The main features of the Act are:

• Establishment of a three-tier structure: Village Panchayat (Gram Panchayat); intermediate panchayat (Panchayat Samiti; and the district panchayat (Zila Parishad);
• Regular elections, every five years;
• Reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in proportion to their population;
• Not less than one-third reservation of seats for women at three different levels of PRIs;
• Establishment of State Finance Commissions to recommend measures to improve the finances of panchayats;
• Establishment of State Election Commissions to conduct election to the PRIs;
• Establishment of District Planning Committees to prepare development plans for the districts;
• Preparation of plans for economic development and social justice and their execution concerning 29 subjects listed in the 11th Schedule of the Constitution;
• Establishment of Grama Sabha (village assemblies) and their empowerment as a decision making body at the village level; and
• Rotation in accordance with the reservation of seats for women and the Scheduled Castes in the PRIs.

Powers and responsibilities

By the Constitution (73rd Amendment) Act, the Panchayati Raj Institutions have been given such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function. It contains provisions for devolution of powers and responsibilities related to

• The preparation of plans for economic development and social justice; and
• The implementation of such schemes for economic development and social justice as may be entrusted to them.

This amendment bars the interference by courts in the electoral matters of panchayats.

• The validity of any law relating to the delimitation of constituencies or the allotment of seats to such constituencies cannot be questioned in any court.
• No election to any panchayat is to be questioned except by an election petition presented to such authority and in such manner as provided by the state legislature.

Long-term financing sources can be in the form of any of them: Share Capital or Equity Shares. Preference Capital or Preference Shares. Retained Earnings or Internal Accruals.