Guiseppe Mazzini was an Italian liberalist.
He wanted to fight for freedom and liberty and wanted to create nation-state.
He was born in Genoa 1807.
1) He became a member of Carbonari , a secret society.
2) He attempted a revolution in Liguria and was sent to exile in 1831.
3) He found Young Italy in Marseilles and Young Europe in Berne.These were underground societies whose members were young men from Poland, France,Italy and German states.
4)Mazzini opposed the evil powers of monarchy and wanted democratic republic to set up.
5)Mazzini wanted to forge all small states and kingdoms into one unified nation.

The revolutionaries were the nationalists who believed in “revolutionary methods” (The use of violence to make a radical change) within society necessary to over throw British rule. Most of the radicals followed the revolutionary methods such as;

1. Large public meetings and demonstrations.
2. Advocating Swaraj: To fight for swaraj, the revolutionaries advocated mass mobilisation and boycott of British institutions and goods.

Jharkhand state is rich in mineral resources. However, it is economically backward because   (a) It was originally mostly populated by tribals who were uneducated.   (b) Due to the rocky terrain, there is very little agricultural land.   (c) Lack of industrial development in earlier times compared with the rest of India.   The Mumbai region of Maharashtra state is poor in natural resources, but is highly economically developed due to the following reasons   (a) It is the commercial hub of India with the maximum amount of local, national and international trade transactions taking place in India.   (b) It has a large number of industries established from a number of years.   (c) It has a very efficient transportation system for people and materials.   (d) The people living and working there are well-educated and earning the maximum compared to any other area in India.

The revolutionaries were the nationalists who believed in “revolutionary methods” (The use of violence to make a radical change) within society necessary to over throw British rule. Most of the radicals followed the revolutionary methods such as;

1. Large public meetings and demonstrations.
2. Advocating Swaraj: To fight for swaraj, the revolutionaries advocated mass mobilisation and boycott of British institutions and goods.

• A political party contests elections by putting up candidates.
• In countries like the USA, the candidates are selected by members and supporters of a party.
• On the other hand, in countries like India, the candidates are chosen by top party leaders.
• Every party has different policies and programmes. Voters make a choice in accordance with the policies and programmes liked by them.
• In a democratic country, a large group of people that has certain similar opinions group together and form a party. Then then, give a direction to the policies adopted by the government.
• Those parties which lose elections form the opposition. They voice different views and criticise the government for their failures and mobilize opposition to the government.
• Political parties shape public opinion. With the help of the pressure groups, the parties launch movements for solving problems faced by the people.
• Parties even offer access to government machinery and welfare schemes. The local party leader serves as a  link between the citizen and the government officer.

1. 1.1 The term “sustainable development” first came to prominence in the world Conservation Strategy (WCS) in 1980. 1.2 It achieved a new status with the publication of two significant reports by Brundtalnd on: North and South: a programme for survival and common crisis (1985) and 1.3 Our Common Future (1983) and has gained even greater attention since the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Jenerio in June 1992.
2. <a href="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/sustainabledevelopment-150923174054-lva1-app6891/95/sustainable-development-4-638.jpg?cb=1443030161" target="_blank" title="• Generally Development is the gradual growth of a situatio...">4. </a>• Generally Development is the gradual growth of a situation that becomes more advanced and strong than previous one. • Development is intended to bring a positive change for human being and its surroundings. Development may take place by bringing about a change in policy, projects and legislation. • Development is a unfolding of human potentials for meaningful participation in economic, social, political and cultural process and institutions, so that people can improve their conditions.
3. <a href="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/sustainabledevelopment-150923174054-lva1-app6891/95/sustainable-development-5-638.jpg?cb=1443030161" target="_blank" title="Sustainable development is development that meets the needs...">5. </a>Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Gro Harlem Brundtland first introduced the concept of sustainable development in 1987. He was then the Prime Minister of Norway and chairman of the World Commission on Environment and Development.
4. <a href="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/sustainabledevelopment-150923174054-lva1-app6891/95/sustainable-development-6-638.jpg?cb=1443030161" target="_blank" title="Improvement of lifestyles and well-being Preserving natural...">6. </a>Improvement of lifestyles and well-being Preserving natural resources and ecosystems Sustainable Development
5. cLICK ON THE GIVEN LINK

<a href="https://www.slideshare.net/KuldeepMishra15/sustainable-development-53121161" ping="/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.slideshare.net/KuldeepMishra15/sustainable-development-53121161&ved=2ahUKEwiFgMrN_cDsAhXAyDgGHYnGBpoQFjAFegQIAhAC" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Sustainable development - SlideShare</a>

More employment in rural areas can be created by taking following steps:

1. Farmers should diversify agriculture and adopt horticulture, animal rearing, organic farming, pisciculture besides farming.

2. Government should take necessary steps to provide loans to farmers at cheaper rates and from formal sources of credit.

3. Creation of basic infrastructure facilities such as roads, transportation, market and banking will lead to creation of employment opportunities in rural areas.

4. Establishment and promotion of cottage and small scale industries will also increase employment opportunities in rural areas.

The list of some famous books written by the Dr. Ambedkar;

(i) In 1845 the Silesian weavers revolted against contractors who supplied them raw material and gave them orders for finished textiles but drastically reduced their payments.
(ii) Dissatisfied and resented weavers emerged from their homes on 4 June and marched in pairs up to the mansion of their contractor demanding higher wages.
(iii) When the contractor showed reluctance, a group of them forced their way into the house, smashed its elegant window panes, furniture, porcelain, etc.
(iv) Another group broke into the store house and plundered it of supplies of cloth which they tore to shreds.
(v) The contractor fled with his family to a neighbouring village which ultimately refused to shelter such a person. He returned 24 hours later having requisitioned the army. In the exchange that followed, eleven weavers were shot.

Liberals wanted a nation which tolerated all religions.Liberals also opposed the uncontrolled power of dynastic rulers. They wanted to safeguard the rights of individuals against governments. They argued for a representative, elected parliamentary government, subject to laws interpreted by a well-trained judiciary that was independent of rulers and officials. However, they were not ‘democrats’. They did not believe in universal adult franchise, that is, the right of every citizen to vote. They felt men of property mainly should have the vote. They also did not want the vote for women.

Conservatives were opposed to radicals and liberals. After the French Revolution, however, even conservatives had opened their minds to the need for change. Earlier, in the eighteenth century, conservatives had been generally opposed to the idea of change. By the nineteenth century, they accepted that some change was inevitable but believed that the past had to be respected and change had to be brought about through a slow process.

Answer:

• Srinagar (J &K)
• Mohali (Punjab)
• Noida (U.P.)
• Jaipur (Rajasthan)
• Gandhinagar (Gujarat)
• Indore (M.P.)
• Mumbai and Pune (Maharashtra)
• Bengaluru and Mysore (Karnataka)
• Thiruvananthapuram (Kerala)
• Chennai (Tamil Nadu)
• Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh)
• Vishakhapatnam
• Bhubaneshwar (Odisha)
• Kolkata (West Bengal)
• Guwahati (Assam)

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Yes, it is true that what may be called development for some may turn out to be destruction for the others. For example, the Sardar Sarovar dam built over the Narmada river led to a major evacuation of the tribes near the Narmada river and as a result the tribes lost their land and homes. This development of Sardar sarovar dam turned out to be a destruction for the tribes. Another example, On the border of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, in the Singrauli region, over 200,000 people have been displaced on different occasions. First by the Rihand dam, then by a series of thermal power plants of the National Thermal Power Corporation. Singrauli has illuminated the lives of many in the urban centres, but has seen its natives groping in endless darkness, grappling to overcome the trauma of displacement. So the development in Singrauli led to destruction of its people. Multinational companies take away the land of the farmers for the construction of industries. It may be beneficial for boosting production but at the same time it causes loss of cultivable land and livelihood of the farmers. Various movements have been launched against the acquisition of land from the farmers..

Abanindranath Tagore was a renowned Indian artist and the creator of the 'Indian Society of Oriental Art'. He painted the image of Bharat Mata in 1905. It depicts Indian tradition. She is portrayed as having four hands with important elements in each.

BR Ambedkar tried to improve the conditions of the Depressed Classes in the following ways: 

In 1930, Dr. BR Ambedkar organised the Dalits (the untouchables) into an organisation called the Depressed Classes Association, now known as scheduled caste. 

• His ideas regarding depressed class deferred from that of Mahatma Gandhi. He wanted separate electorates for Dalits.
• Whilst at Round Table Conference in London he demanded separate electorates for Dalits and the British coloniser conceded his demand. This caused Mahatma Gandhi to fast unto the death because he believed that separate electorate for the Dalits would slow down the process of their integration into the main society. 
• He signed the Poona Pact with Gandhi ji and the Congress giving the opportunities to depress to secure reserved seat for Dalits in the provincial and Central Legislative Council to be voted in general election. 

The "Treaty of Constantinople of 1832" recognised Greece as an independent nation.

There are two types of federation: Coming together Federation and Holding together Federation. 

Most people tend to be very critical of political parties. They tend to blame parties for all that is wrong with our democracy and our political life. Parties have become identified with social and political divisions.

Political Parties are the organized group of people whose main aim is to contest elections,come to power and retain power. It is said that parties reflect social and political divisions in the society through the following ways:

a. Parties divide the society on the basis of ideologies that its supports and endorses.
b. Parties involve partisanship where people show affiliation to a particular party and its ideology.
c. A party seeks to promote and upholds a particular interest. For example regional parties, caste based parties.
d. A party comprises of a leader who is actively propagating his/her party's programme and beliefs, active members who are associated with it and followers who believe in its programmes.
e. Parties tend to divide people for instance , caste based parties creates division in terms of pro reservation and anti reservation group.
f. Then there are regional based parties which may at times demand greater autonomy or even secessionism from the Union,laeding to balkanisation of the country.
g. As the political parties put forward their manifestos, the people decide to support different parties and they get divided. Thus political parties create social and political divisions

The development of nationalism in Europe was not only the result of war and territorial expansion.
Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation in Europe. The following examples state the fact
(i) Art, poetry, stories and music helped express and shape nationalist feelings in-Europe.
(ii) Romanticism, a cultural movement in Europe developed a particular form of nationalist sentiment. Romantic artists and poets criticised the glorification of science and reason. They tried to create a sense of a shared collective heritage as the basis of a nation. They gave importance on emotions, intuitions and mystical feelings.
(iii) German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder claimed that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people (das volk) in their folk song, folk poetry and folk dances.
(iv) Vernacular languages and folklores strengthen the national spirit.
(v) In Poland Karol Kurpinski cekbrated the national struggle through opera and music.
(vi) Allegory of Germania and Marianne developed national feelings among citizens.

Federalism in India is practised by the creation of linguistic states  ,language policy and centre state relations.

Linguistic states:- in 1947 ,the boundaries of several old states were changed in order to create new states . This was done to ensure that people who spoke the same language lived in the same state .Some of them were not only created on the basis of language but to recognise differences based on culture, ethnicity or geography. For example:- Nagaland,Uttrakhand and Jharkhand.

Language policy:- Our constitution did not give the status of national language to any one language. Hindi was identified as the official language. But it is the mother tongue of only about 40% of Indians  Therefore they were many  safeguards to protect other languages. Besides Hindi,there are 21other languages recognisddras scheduled languages by the Indian constitution.

Centre - State relations :-  Reconstructing the centre state relations in one more way in which federalism has been strengthened in practice. Since, 1990 coalition government were at the centre . No single party got a clear majority in the lok sabha, the major national parties had to enter into an alliance with many parties including several regional parties to form a government at the centre. This led to a new culture of power sharing at the centre. This led to a new culture of power sharing amd respect for the autonomy of  the State Governments.

1) When the news of the revolutionary events in France reached the different cities of Europe, students and other members of educated middle classes began setting up Jacobin clubs.
(2) Their activities and campaigns prepared the way for the French armies which had entered into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland and much of Italy in the 1790s.
(3) With the outbreak of the revolutionary wars, the French armies began to carry the idea of nationalism abroad.