Since the country's independence in 1947, the economy of Pakistan has emerged as a semi-industrialized one, based heavily on textiles, agriculture, and food production, though recent years have seen a push towards technological diversification. Pakistan's GDP growth has been gradually on the rise since 2012 and the country has made significant improvements in its provision of energy and security. However, decades of corruption and internal political conflict have usually led to low levels of foreign investment and underdevelopment.

Historically, the land forming modern-day Pakistan was home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilization from 2800 BC to 1800 BC, and evidence suggests that its inhabitants were skilled traders. Although the subcontinent enjoyed economic prosperity during the Mughal era, growth steadily declined during the British colonial period. Since independence, economic growth has meant an increase in average income of about 150 percent from 1950 to 1996, But Pakistan like many other developing countries, has not been able to narrow the gap between itself and rich industrial nations, which have grown faster on a per head basis. Per capita GNP growth rate from 1985 to 1995 was only 1.2 percent per annum, substantially lower than India (3.2), Bangladesh (2.1), and Sri Lanka (2.6). The inflation rate in Pakistan has averaged 7.99 percent from 1957 until 2015, reaching an all-time high of 37.81 percent in December 1973 and a record low of -10.32 percent in February 1959. Pakistan suffered its only economic decline in GDP between 1951 and 1952.

The Gross National Income (GNI) of China is $11,850. There is only high human development in China rather than very high development because, although the country is improving, it hasn't improved enough. Since it has improved it isn't in the medium or low category. China is in stage 4 of Rostow's Modernization Model. China's strong productivity growth, spurred by the 1978 market-oriented reforms, is the leading cause of China's unprecedented economic performance. Despite significant obstacles relating to the measurement of economic variables in China, these findings hold up after various tests for robustness.

In 1959, Pakistan became concerned that Chinese maps showed areas of Pakistan in China. The willingness of the Chinese to enter the agreement was welcomed by the people of Pakistan. Negotiations between the nations officially began on October 13, 1962 and resulted in an agreement being signed on 2 March 1963. At these rates, India will overtake China's population by 2025 AD.  At present the average age of the Indian population is 27 years, while for China it is 35 years. India's population projected to 2019 is about 1.28 billion while China is 1.36 billion. China has a higher growth rate of GDP than India ever since 1980.

Although China's agricultural output is the largest in the world, only 10% of its total land area can be cultivated. ... Of this approximately 1.4 million square kilometers of arable land, only about 1.2% (116,580 square kilometers) permanently supports crops and 525,800 square kilometers are irrigated. These are the Northeastern Plain, the North China Plain and the Middle-Lower Yangtze Plain . Benefiting from climate, topography , economic and historical factors, eastern China has become the major agricultural production area in the country. It is a staggering accomplishment that China is able to feed 20 percent of the world's population with only 7 percent of the world's farmland. The relationship between the Chinese people and their land is further complicated by the uneven distribution of the population.

As of 2019, the GDP of India is around of 10 times greater than Pakistan. In nominal terms, the gap is wider (above 10 times) than PPP terms (below 10 times). In 2019, the per capita income of India would be 1.62 times an all-time higher than Pakistan on an exchange rate basis. But in 2019, China's GDP is 4.78 times greater than India. On a PPP basis, the GDP of China is 2.38x of India. China crossed the $1 trillion mark in 1998 while India crossed 9 years later in 2007 at an exchange rate basis. Both countries have been neck-to-neck in GDP per capita terms.

The Great Leap Forward (GLF) was a campaign initiated in 1958 in China by Mao's, which was aimed to modernise the China's economy. The campaign was imitated towards the large scale industrialisation in the country not concentrated only in the urban areas. The people were motivated to set up industries in their backyards. In the rural areas commune system was implemented. Under this system, people were engaged in collective farming. There were 26,000 communes covering almost all the farm population.

The Chinese economic reform  refers to the program of economic reforms termed "Socialism with Chinese characteristics" and "socialist market economy" in the People's Republic of China (PRC). The reforms were started by reformists within the Chinese Communist Party—led by Deng Xiaoping—on December 18, 1978, during the "Boluan Fanzheng" period. They went into stagnation after the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests, but were revived after Deng Xiaoping's Southern Tour in 1992. In 2010, China overtook Japan as the world's second-largest economy.

Before the reforms, the Chinese economy was dominated by state ownership and central planning. From 1950 to 1973, Chinese real GDP per capita grew at a rate of 2.9% per year on average, albeit with major fluctuations stemming from the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution. This placed it near the middle of the Asian nations during the same period, with neighboring capitalist countries such as Japan, South Korea, Singapore and rival Chiang Kai-shek's Republic of China (also known as the Four Asian Tigers) outstripping mainland China's rate of growth. Starting in 1970, the economy entered into a period of stagnation, and after the death of Mao Zedong, the Communist Party leadership turned to market-oriented reforms to salvage the failing economy.

The Communist Party authorities carried out the market reforms in two stages. The first stage, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, involved the de-collectivization of agriculture, the opening up of the country to foreign investment, and permission for entrepreneurs to start businesses. However, a large percentage of industries remained state-owned. The second stage of reform, in the late 1980s and 1990s, involved the privatization and contracting out of much state-owned industry. The 1985 lifting of price controls was a major reform, and protectionist policies and regulations soon followed, although state monopolies in sectors such as banking and petroleum remained. In 2001, China joined the World Trade Organization (WTO). The private sector grew remarkably, accounting for as much as 70 percent of China's gross domestic product by 2005. From 1978 until 2013, unprecedented growth occurred, with the economy increasing by 9.5% a year. The conservative Hu Jintao's administration regulated and controlled the economy more heavily after 2005, reversing some reforms. On the other hand, a parallel set of political reforms were launched by Deng in 1980, but eventually ended in 1989 due to the Tiananmen Square protests.

Development Path of India & its Neighbours
We study the development path of India in comparison with Pakistan and China because of the similarities these countries exhibit with India in the sense that all the three countries set out on their respective development paths roughly around the same time. India and Pakistan became independent countries in 1947, while the People’s Republic of China came into existence in 1949.

All these countries followed the process of economic planning in the initial years of their development planning. India undertook its first Five Year Plan from 1951-56. Pakistan announced its first plan, called the Medium Term Plan in 1956. China announced its first plan in the year 1953. India and Pakistan placed a similar thrust on the relative importance of the public sector and social expenditure.

All three countries had similar growth rates till the 1980s. their per capita incomes were nearly around the same figure. India undertook economic reforms in 1991. Pakistan implemented reforms in 1988, while China did so in 1978.

Development Strategy of India
In the development path of India, it first undertook the policy of closed trade. This was to give a thrust to domestic industries and reduce dependence on foreign products and companies. Thus, India followed what is called the import substitution strategy. Trade and interaction with the outside world remained limited. This outlook continued till 1991 when India finally decided to open its borders to free trade and liberalized its economy by allowing foreign companies to enter the Indian economy.

A thrust was given to employment generation under the Five Year plans. This was to make up for a rising population and lacking jobs to absorb the increased workforce size. Rural development was also given importance in India, for the important constituent it was of the Indian landscape.

Poverty alleviation came as a corollary of rural development and a part of the development path of India. India inherited a poverty-stricken economy from the British rule, which had destroyed its resource base completely. Therefore, poverty alleviation programmes and policies formed a major part of election campaigns and party promises.

The public sector was given significant importance, Private companies and industries were subject to strict regulations and standards. It was believed that the government was the sole protector of the people and would work towards social welfare.

Development Strategy of China
One of the key highlights of China’s development strategy is its Great Leap Forward (GLF). The strategy aimed at the high-scale industrialization of the economy. Rural communities were allowed to undertake collective cultivation. Urban communities were encouraged to undertake industrialization by even setting up industrial workshops in their backyards.

China has always followed a communist ideology. Severely critical of the free market forces and capitalism, the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution was launched in 1966-76 under the leadership of Mao Tse Tung. Following the revolution, China reformed its economy in 1978.

Reforms in agriculture allowed cultivators to keep the income from their lands after paying taxes. Industrial reforms were aimed at promoting collective local production. The public enterprises were exposed to foreign competitors as a result of the reforms. The goal was to generate enough surpluses to finance the modernization of mainland China. To this end, China set up Special Economic Zones (SEZs) to invite investors to set up economic units in its territory.

1. Gathering and Analysing Market Information: One of the important functions of marketing is to gather and analyse market information. It helps to identify the needs of the customers and take various decisions for the successful marketing of the products and services. It also helps to analyse various opportunities and threats as well as strengths and weaknesses of the organization.

2. Marketing Planning: Another important activity of a marketer is to develop suitable marketing plans so that the marketing objectives of the organisation can be achieved.

In physics, electrostatics deals with the phenomena and properties of stationary or slow-moving electric charges. Electrostatic phenomena arise from the forces that electric charges exert on each other and are described by Coulomb’s law. Even though electrostatically induced forces seem to be rather weak.

Historians often try to understand the meaning of sculpture by comparing it with textual evidence so that they can gain an insight into why the sculpture was created.

The "Sanchi Stupa" is one of the oldest Buddhist Sculptures located on a hill top at Sanchi town near Bhopal. It was first commissioned by Samrat Ashoka in the "3rd Century BCE".  It had been abandoned for nearly 600 years till it was discovered by the Europeans in 1818.

To understand the complex structure and its significance the historians minutely studied the textual evidence. They discovered several inscriptions which were slokas from the Rig Veda. Some were addressed to God Agni. The shape and architecture of the stupa was typically Buddhist. Some engravings disclosed the close meaning of the sculpture. Thus the historians gained a better insight to the meaning of the sculpture by comparing it with textual evidence.

The budget of a government is a summary or plan of the intended revenues and expenditures of that government. There are three types of government budget : the operating or current budget, the capital or investment budget, and the cash or cash flow budget. Four Main Types of Budgets/Budgeting Methods. There are four common types of budgets that companies use: (1) incremental, (2) activity-based, (3) value proposition, and (4) zero-based. These four budgeting methods each have their own advantages and challenges, which will be discussed in more detail in this guide.