स्वतंत्रता के पूर्व प्रांतों का गठन अस्त-व्यस्त ढंग से किया गया था। यह केवल एक प्रशासनिक सुविधा थी। इसलिए कांग्रेस ने स्वतंत्रता-संग्राम के दौरान यह वायदा किया था कि स्वतंत्रता-प्राप्ति के बाद राज्यों का गठन भाषा केआधार पर किया जाएगा। इसलिए स्वतंत्रता-प्राप्ति के बाद भारतीय संघ की इकाइयों को पुनर्गठित करने के लिए एक समिति का गठन किया। इस समिति ने भाषा के आधार पर राज्यों के पुनर्गठन के विरुद्ध सिफारिश की। लेकिन भारत के कई हिस्सों में भाषा केआधार पर राज्यों का गठन करने के लिए आंदोलन शुरूहो गए या कहिए कि देश में भाषायी आधार पर राज्यों को गठित करने का संघर्ष चल पड़ा। इन संघर्षों से बाध्य होकर केंद्र सरकार ने 1953 में राज्य पुनर्गठन आयोग बनाया। इस आयोग का काम राज्यों के सीमांकन के मामलों पर गौर करना था।
इस आयोग ने अपनी रिपोर्ट में यह स्वीकार किया कि राज्यों की सीमाओं का निर्माण वहाँ बोली जाने वाली भाषा केआधार पर होना चाहिए। इस आयोग की रिपोर्ट के आधार पर 1956 में राज्य पुनर्गठन अधिनियम पास हुआ। इस अधिनियम के आधार पर 14 राज्य और 6 केंद्र शासित प्रदेश बनाए गए और बाद में कई राज्यों का निर्माण भी भाषा के आधार पर ही किया गया।

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Third wave:

• It comprises professionals like doctors, engineers, software engineers, management consultants, financial experts, media persons to countries such as USA, Canada, UK, Australia, New Zealand and Germany.
• These professionals enjoy the distinction of being highly educated, the highest earning and prospering groups.

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Colonialism brought into being new political, economic and social structural changes.  While the focus is on specific colonial context we also briefly touch on developments after independence. For example, Bombay during British India was planned and re-developed so that by 1900 over three-quarters of India's raw cotton were shipped through the city. Urbanization in the colonial period led to the decline of some earlier urban centres and the emergence of new colonial cities.

Thomas Cook, (born November 22, 1808, Melbourne, Derbyshire, England—died July 18, 1892, Leicester, Leicestershire), English innovator of the conducted tour and founder of Thomas Cook and Son, a worldwide travel agency. Cook can be said to have invented modern tourism. Thomas Cook were the oldest travel group in the UK. The firm was founded in Market Harborough in 1841 - meaning that today ended 178 years of holiday-making. The company, whose headquarters were based at Manchester Airport, was founded by Thomas Cook himself.

The main reasons for the people to join groups are as follows:-  (a) Security:  (b) Status:  (c) Self-esteem:  (d) Satisfaction of one’s psychological and social needs:  (e) Goal achievement:  (f) Provide knowledge and information 

• The concept of cognitive dissonance was proposed by Leon Festinger. The cognitive components of an attitude must be ‘consonant’ (opposite of ‘dissonant’), i.e. they should be logically in line with each other. 
• If an individual finds that two cognitions in an attitude are dissonant, then one of them will be changed in the direction of consonance. 
• Explanation of cognitive consistency to reduce mental discomfort.
• Explanation by referring to Radhika 

Autism Spectrum Disorder under the category of Neurodevelopmental disorders – 1 mark

•  Children with autism spectrum disorder have marked difficulties in social interaction and communication.
• They have restricted range of interests.
• They have strong desire for routine.
• They are unable to share experiences and emotions.
• They show serious abnormalities in communication and language that persist over time.
• Many never develop speech, those who do have repetitive deviant patterns.
• They show narrow patterns of interests and repetitive behaviours such as lining up objects or stereotyped body movements.

• Positive symptom –
• Hallucinations are perceptions that occur in the absence of external stimuli, positive symptoms of schizophrenia
• Auditory and visual hallucination
• Listing and description of other types of hallucinations

The relationship between behaviour and attitude is interwoven. It is usually believed that the behaviour is followed by an attitude but it is not the case always, the behaviour is exhibited only when the individual possesses a strong attitude towards anything, when the person is not being watched and when the behaviour has a positive outcome. As in a study conducted by Richard LaPierre on managers of the hotels in America, it was found that the Americans despite having a negative attitude towards Chinse travellers allowed a Chinese couple to stay in their hotels. Also Sometimes it is the behaviour that decides the attitude.

The conditions that lead the learning of attitudes are:

Learning attitudes by association: A positive association between two factors or set of people can help in learning of attitude. For example; students take a liking to a particular subject because of the teacher concerned. This is because the students are able to identify with many of the qualities of such a teacher. These qualities transcend the subject such a teacher teaches and are important to the students liking that subject.

Learning attitudes by being rewarded or punished: An individual develops a particular attitude. if she is praised for it. For example, a student who is good at sports and is called the NUMBERO UNO of sports then she develops a positive attitude towards sports and health and fitness. On similar lines, if a child is taken ill repeatedly on eating junk food, then she develops a negative attitude towards junk food and a positive attitude towards eating healthy food.

Bodily - Kinaesthetic

Intelligence – Identification  

explanation  Interpersonal

Intelligence - Identification  explanation  

Group polarization is a group influence which refers to the strengthening of groups initial position as a result interaction and discussion.
As a result of group discussion opinion shifts towards more extreme positions than those whicfi they initially held.
In group polarization, it has been found that groups are more likely to take extreme decisions than individuals alone. Group polarization occurs due to the following factors:
(i)In the company of like-minded people, people are likely to hear newer arguments favouring their view-points.
(ii)When people find others also favouring their view-point, they feel that their view is validated by the public. This is a sort of bandwagon effect.
(iii)When people find others having similar views, they are likely to perceive them as in-group.

It is a branch of psychology which focuses on the links between the mind, the brain and immune system. It studies the effects of stress on the immune system.

• Aggression: According to psychologists, aggression refers to any behaviour by a person that is intended to cause harm to another person or persons to take revenge. For example, aggression It can be demonstrated in actual action or through the use of harsh words or criticism or even hostile feelings against others.
•Violence: Forceful destructive behaviour towards another person or persons to attain some material gain is violence.
Instrumental Aggression:
The act of aggression is meant to obtain a certain goal or get others, possessions forcefully. For example, A bully slaps a new student in school so that he can snatch the new comer’s chocolate. In violence, individual may or may not have the intention to harm others in terms of revenge. It is forceful destructive behaviour, e.g., hitting a person just to loot his money.
Hostile Aggression:
An expression of anger towards the target, with the intention of harming him/her even if the aggressor does not wish to obtain anything from the victim. For example, A criminal may beat up a person in the community for mentioning his name to the police. Aggression can be reduced by creating the appropriate attitude towards the general problem of growing aggression.
(a)Parenting:
•Parents and teacher should be specially careful not to encourage aggression in any form. The use of punishment to bring about discipline also needs to be changed.
(b)Modelling:
•Opportunities to observe and imitate the behaviour of aggressive models should be reduced drastically.
Portraying aggression as heroic behaviour should be particularly avoided because this may set the stage for learning through observation.
(c)Implementing social justice and equality in society:
•It will help in reducing frustration levels and thereby curb aggressive tendencies at least to some extent.
(d)Inculcating positive attitude towards peace at the level of community or society. The father of our nation, Mahatma Gandhi, gave the world a new view to peace that was not simply the absence of aggression. This was non-violence. It should be taught to the younger generation.

• presence of biological aberration 
• person may carry a vulnerability 
• presence of pathogenic stressors