The two principles to understand the theoretical interpretation of caste are hierarchy and discrimination.  

Explanation:  

• The Indian societal system used to be divided into small groups based on their traditional occupation of varnas. These occupations were placed in a hierarchical fashion and created the basis of the caste system.  
• The second principle that guided this system into place is the aspect of discrimination. The upper classes discriminated against the lower castes based on their varnas and made them do the menial tasks of the society.
• The lower castes were subjected to centuries of conditioning and accepted this as their fate without questioning.

The major issue which led to the formal split of the Congress Party in 1969 was the differences between Indira Gandhi and the ‘syndicate'. Its discussed below:

(i) She launched a series of initiatives to give the government policy a Left orientation. She got the Congress working committee to adopt a Ten Point Programme in May 1967. This programme included social control of banks, nationalisation of General Insurance, ceiling on urban property and income, land reforms and other items. While (syndicate) leaders approved this left wing programme, they had serious reservations about the same.

(ii) The factional rivalry between the syndicate and Indira Gandhi came in the open in the Presidential election in 1969. The official Congress candidate was N. Sanjeeva Reddy. Indira Gandhi, however, encouraged V.V. Giri, to file nomination as an independent candidate. The Congress President issued a whip but Indira Gandhi called for a ‘conscience vote’ leading to V.V. Giri victory.

(iii) In the meantime, Indira Gandhi also announced the nationalisation of fourteen leading private banks and the abolition of privy purses which led differences between Indira Gandhi and the Finance Minister Morarji Desai resulting in Desai leaving the government.

These events led to the split in the Congress in 1969 into two - Congress (Organisation) and Congress (Requisitionists).

The young trees are personified in the poem. They seem to be running in the opposite direction when seen through the window of the moving car. The movement is juxtaposed with the expression on the mother’s face i.e. ashen like a corpse. The movement of the children and the trees is in stark contrast with the stillness associated with the mother.

1. By minimizing and reducing the use of fire and fire products.
2. Since industrial emissions are one of the major causes of air pollution, the pollutants can be controlled or treated at the source itself to reduce its effects. For example, if the reactions of a certain raw material yield a pollutant, then the raw materials can be substituted with other less polluting materials.
3. Fuel substitution is another way of controlling air pollution. In many parts of India, petrol and diesel are being replaced by CNG – Compressed Natural Gas fueled vehicles. These are mostly adopted by vehicles that aren’t fully operating with ideal emission engines.
4. Although there are many practices in India, which focus on repairing the quality of air, most of them are either forgotten or not being enforced properly. There are still a lot of vehicles on roads which haven’t been tested for vehicle emissions.
5. Another way of controlling air pollution caused by industries is to modify and maintain existing pieces of equipment so that the emission of pollutants is minimized.
6. Sometimes controlling pollutants at the source is not possible. In that case, we can have process control equipment to control the pollution.
7. A very effective way of controlling air pollution is by diluting the air pollutants.
8. The last and the best way of reducing the ill effects of air pollution is tree plantation. Plants and trees reduce a large number of pollutants in the air. Ideally, planting trees in areas of high pollution levels will be extremely effective.

1.The social dominance of the military, clergy and landowning aristocracy has led to the frequent overthrow of elected governments and the establishment of military governments.

2. Pakistan’s conflict with India has made the pro-military groups more powerful.These groups have often siad that political parties and democracy in Pakistan are flawed and Pakistan security would be harmed by selfish- minded parties and chotic democracy.

3.The lack of genuine international support for democratic rule in Pakistan has further encouraged the military to continue its dominance. 

4. The United States and other western countries have also encouraged the military’s authoritarian rule for their own reasons such as fear of ‘global Islamic terrorism’ and apprehension of falling of Pakistan’s nuclear weapons into the hands of terrorist groups. Thus, they see military regime as protector of their interests in West Asia and South Asia.

Mighty dead' can be things of beauty as they do inspirational deeds in their lives which one reads and has heard. Their legends and tales keep enthusing the reader.

The crofter in the Rattrap was the retired personnel in whose house the peddler rested for the while.

He was glad to find someone with whom he can talk to.

Moreover, he was not so cruel to the peddler when he came to know that the peddler or the guest of the Christmas stolen few money from his poach.

The crofter was an old man, without wife or child, who owned a little gray cottage by the roadside and gave shelter to the peddler when he knocked on his door because he was happy to get someone to alleviate his loneliness. He was an extremely gracious host, putting the porridge pot on fire for his guest. He served supper to the peddler and also carved out a big slice from his tobacco roll which was enough for the stranger's pipe and his own. The he got out an old pack of cards and played 'mjolis' with his guest until bedtime. The old man was not only generous with his hospitality, that is his porridge and tobacco, but also with his confidences. He used to be a crofter at Ramsjo Ironworks and had worked on the land. However, upon growing old, he could not do day labour so he had a cow which supported him, gave him milk for the creamery every day. The old man had received thirty kronor in payment for his goods. The old man was so easily trusting that he did not refrain from showing his guest, the three wrinkled ten-kronor bills. One could take him for a naive man but it is better to believe that the old man believed in trusting people rather than doubting them, which engenders a positive attitude towards life.

a ns w e r

Jawahar lal Nehru

Jawahar lal Nehru was the architect of the Non-Alignment Movement. The five principles were: Mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty. Mutual non-aggression.

New cartesian sign convention for refraction of light through spherical lenses. According to this sign convention:
(i) All distances are measured from the optical centre of the lens.
(ii) The distances measured in the same direction as the incident light are taken positive.
(iii) The distances measured in the direction opposite to the direction of incident light are taken negative.
(iv) Heights measured upwards and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken positive.
(v) Heights measured downwards and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken negative.

Assumptions used in the derivation of lens formula:
(i) The lens used is thin.
(ii) The aperture of the lens is small.
(iii) The incident and refracted rays make small angles with the principal axis.
(iv) The object is a small object placed on the principal axis.
Derivation of lens formula for a convex lens. As shown in Fig, consider an object AB placed perpendicular to the principal axis of a thin convex lens between its F₁ and 2F₁. A real, inverted and magnified image AB' is formed beyond 2F₂ on the other side of the lens.

Fig. Real image formed by a convex lens.

                                                                       ...(1)
Also,    are similar,
                                  
But MO = AB,
                                                                          ...(2)

From (1) and (2), we get   
Using new Cartesian sign convention, we get
                    Object distance,    BO = -u
                   Image distance, OB' = +v
                   Focal length, OF₂ = + f
                             
Derivation of lens formula is not included in CBSE syllabus.
or                 
or                  
Dividing both sides by uvf, we get
                           
This proves the lens formula for a convex lens.
 

Origin of the United Nations Organisation (UNO):

It was the Atlantic Charter of 1941 which guaranteed the principle of equality of states and their freedom to choose any form of government that can be considered the origin of the UNO.

In 1942 the representatives of twenty-six countries put their signatures to the United Nations Declaration drawn on the lines of Atlantic Charter.

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<a data-ved="2ahUKEwixzvHjoeTtAhWDe30KHQzuAHIQFjABegQIAxAC" href="https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/project-reports/project-report-on-the-united-nations-organization-uno/85533#:~:text=Project%20Report%20%23%201.,the%20origin%20of%20the%20UNO.&text=The%20UNO%20was%20formally%20brought%20into%20existence%20on%2024%20October%201945." ping="/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/project-reports/project-report-on-the-united-nations-organization-uno/85533%23:~:text%3DProject%2520Report%2520%2523%25201.,the%2520origin%2520of%2520the%2520UNO.%26text%3DThe%2520UNO%2520was%2520formally%2520brought%2520into%2520existence%2520on%252024%2520October%25201945.&ved=2ahUKEwixzvHjoeTtAhWDe30KHQzuAHIQFjABegQIAxAC" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Project Report on the United Nations Organization (UNO)</a>

Introduction
 An international organization is an organization with an international membership, scope, or presence.  International Organisation is a specialisation within the Political Science master programme. It covers various aspects of global governance from multiple social and political science perspectives.  To study international organisation (IO) is to study the norms, rules, and institutions that shape relations between states and contacts across state borders, and how they affect people’s lives, the destiny of nations, and the fate of the planet.

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<a data-ved="2ahUKEwiz5LH8n-TtAhUZlEsFHZoDAy4QFjABegQIBRAC" href="https://www.slideshare.net/sourabharay/international-organization-55132044" ping="/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.slideshare.net/sourabharay/international-organization-55132044&ved=2ahUKEwiz5LH8n-TtAhUZlEsFHZoDAy4QFjABegQIBRAC" rel="noopener" target="_blank">International organization - SlideShare</a>

 An international organization is an organization with an international membership, scope, or presence.  International Organisation is a specialisation within the Political Science master programme. It covers various aspects of global governance from multiple social and political science perspectives.  To study international organisation (IO) is to study the norms, rules, and institutions that shape relations between states and contacts across state borders, and how they affect people’s lives, the destiny of nations, and the fate of the planet.