If you look at the map, you will see that the continents of Europe and Africa are separated by a sea that stretches all the way from Spain in the west to Syria in the east.

This sea is called the Mediterranean, and it was the heart of Rome's empire. Rome dominated the Mediterranean and all the regions around that sea in both directions, north as well as south.

To the north, the boundaries of the empire were formed by two great rivers, the Rhine and the Danube; to the south, by the huge expanse of desert called the Sahara. This vast stretch of the territory was the Roman Empire.

समाजशास्त्र मनुष्यों, उनके समूहों और समाजों के सामाजिक जीवन का अध्ययन है। समाज को समग्र रूप से समझने के लिए समाजशास्त्र का अध्ययन करना महत्वपूर्ण है। यह समझने में हमारी मदद करता है कि समाज के भीतर की सामाजिक व्यवस्थाएँ आपस में कैसे जुड़ी हैं।

समाजशास्त्र की उत्पत्ति का अध्ययन महत्वपूर्ण है क्योंकि इससे हमें यह समझने में मदद मिलती है कि यह विषय क्यों और इस विषय की उत्पत्ति कैसे हुई। उन सिद्धांतों और धारणाओं को समझने के लिए समाजशास्त्र की उत्पत्ति और विकास का अध्ययन करना महत्वपूर्ण है जिन पर विषय विकसित और आधारित है।

Definition:
An equation involving one or more trigonometrical ratio of an unknown angle is called a trigonometrical equation

A trigonometric equation is different from a trigonometrical identities. An identity is satisfied for every value of the unknown angle e.g., cos² x = 1 − sin² x is true ∀ x ∈ R, while a trigonometric equation is satisfied for some particular values of the unknown angle.

(1) Roots of trigonometrical equation: The value of unknown angle (a variable quantity) which satisfies the given equation is called the root of an equation, e.g., cos θ = ½, the root is θ = 60° or θ = 300° because the equation is satisfied if we put θ = 60° or θ = 300°.

(2) Solution of trigonometrical equations: A value of the unknown angle which satisfies the trigonometrical equation is called its solution.
Since all trigonometrical ratios are periodic in nature, generally a trigonometrical equation has more than one solution or an infinite number of solutions. There are basically three types of solutions:

1. Particular solution: A specific value of unknown angle satisfying the equation.
2. Principal solution: Smallest numerical value of the unknown angle satisfying the equation (Numerically smallest particular solution).
3. General solution: Complete set of values of the unknown angle satisfying the equation. It contains all particular solutions as well as principal solutions.

Trigonometrical equations with their general solution

General solution of the form a cos θ  +  b sin θ  = c

<a href="http://cbseacademic.nic.in/web_material/Curriculum20/publication/srsec/840_APPLIED_MATHS-XI.pdf">http://cbseacademic.nic.in/web_material/Curriculum20/publication/srsec/840_APPLIED_MATHS-XI.pdf</a>

pplied Mathematics Class 11 Syllabus

There are eight units - (i) Numbers, Quantification and Numerical Applications, (ii) Algebra, (iii) Mathematical Reasoning, (iv) Calculus, (v) Probability, (vi) Descriptive Statistics, (vii) Basics of Financial Mathematics, and (viii) Coordinate Geometry.

Course Structure

Women could not exercise much personal sovereignty in ancient Mesopotamia. The social structure defined women in relation to their families. Society viewed a woman as her father's daughter or her husband's wife -- and not as an autonomous individual. Royal women or those from rich and powerful families enjoyed a greater degree of personal autonomy, in some cases. Mesopotamian women would not inherit their husband's estate if there were eligible male heirs. Women did not often work outside of the house, but some held jobs selling wares they had created or worked as tavern keepers. The 18th century introduction of the Code of Hammurabi gave women the ability to divorce and own property under certain circumstances, even though the code also treated women as property.

Marriage for Women in Mesopotamia society
In ancient Mesopotamian, women were considered ready for a family-arranged marriage soon after they reached puberty. Mesopotamian women did not marry individuals; rather, they married into their husbands' families. The groom's father exercised considerable power in Mesopotamian marriages. For example, he could give the bride to one of the groom's brothers in the event of the groom's death or dissatisfaction with the marriage. The groom's family paid a dowry in most marriages, and Mesopotamian society viewed this as a payment for the groom's right to the bride. Husbands had the power to manage marital assets.

Sources: There is a rich collection of sources to study Roman history, like – texts, documents and material remains. 

1. Archaeological : a) Amphitheater, b) Amphorae, c) Colosseum, d) Statues, e) Aqueducts

2. (Literary) Written : (A) Texts –  Histories written by Contemporary Historians (B) Documents

3. Aerial Photographs

Documentary sources include mainly inscriptions and papyri. Inscriptions were usually cuton stone, so a large number survive, in both Greek and Latin.

The ‘papyrus’ was a reed-like plant that grew along the banks of the Nile in Egypt and was processed to produce a writing material that was very widely used in everyday life.

Thousands of contracts, accounts, letters and official documents survive ‘on papyrus’ and have been published by scholars who are called ‘papyrologists.

Movement of Goods into Cities

There were very few mineral resources in Mesopotamia. The wood of Iraqi date-palm was not good enough for carts, cart wheels or boats. There was no metal for tools, vessels or ornaments. So, it can be inferred that people of Mesopotamia traded their abundant textiles and agricultural produce for wood, copper, tin, silver, gold, shell and various stones from Turkey and Iran, or across Gulf.

Efficient transport is also important for urban development. Carrying goods on pack of animals or bullock carts would be too much time consuming. It will not make the city economy viable. Transportation over water is the cheapest mode of transport. Unlike animals, a ship does not need to be fed. It used to be propelled by current of the river and/or wind.

Given: 

 and 

Squaring both sides and adding both the equations, we get

 and 

 and 

[ lies in first quadrant]

Therefore, Polar form of  is 

Mycelium is the vegetative component of a fungus, which consists of white or cream-coloured fungal threads or filaments recognized as hyphae. A single mycelium’s size varies from being very tiny to be as common as a forest.

In the solid state (ice), intermolecular interactions lead to a highly ordered but loose structure in which each oxygen atom is surrounded by 4 hydrogen atoms; two of these hydrogen atoms are covalently bonded to the oxygen atom, and the two others (at longer distances) are hydrogen bonded to the oxygen atom’s unshared electron pairs.

this open structure of ice causes its density to be less than that of the liquid state, in which the ordered structure is partially broken down and the water molecules are (on average) closer together. When water freezes, a variety of structures are possible depending on the conditions. 9 different forms of ice are known and can be interchanged by varying external pressure and temperature.

Gemmules are formed as a result of the combining of glycoprotein or lipoprotein cells, which are present in the archaeocytes- totipotent cells as a part of the food material, into a cell mass. This cell mass is then surrounded by an amoebocyte, which is a mobile cell.

The place inside the earth's crust where the earthquake is generated, is called focus of the earthquake. The point on the earth's surface directly above the focus is called epicentre.

Disadvantages

• Governments are being elected on a minority of votes cast in a general election, meaning those in government who are making all the decision do not represent the opinions of the majority of the country. This leads to doubts about democratic legitimacy. The was particularly prevalent in the 2005 election, when Labour secured a majority of the seats in the House of Commons with only 35.2% of the total vote, however this issue was solved in 2010 with the formation of a coalition, so 59.1% of the total votes was for one of the two parties that make up to coalition. So in this sense the current coalition is more legitimate than the previous Labour government.
• FPTP is extremely discriminative against smaller parties due to our 'two party system.' The Liberal Democrats are a prime example of such discrimination; in the 2010 General Election they received 23% of the votes but just 57 seas, while Labour received 29% of votes and 258 seats. On average, 33,000-34,000 votes are needed to elect a Labour or Conservative MP, but 120,000 to elect a Liberal Democrat. This is why the Lib Dems were pushing for the AV referendum in 2011, as a more proportional system would see them receive more seats.
• There are a large number of 'wasted' votes, for example those living in a 'safe seat' voting against the traditional party or a vote for a smaller party that is extremely unlikely to win a seat (eg. the Green party). This means that votes in marginal seats are effectively worth more than those in safe seats, politicians are more likely to spend time in these areas prior to an election to try and convince the voters to 'swing' to their party. An example of a safe seat is Liverpool Walton which is held by labour. This type of vote wastage may be one of the reasons for low turnout, people do not see the point in voting if their vote is not going to count.

Advantages

• It has existed for a long time, is widely accepted and tradition for the Westminster General Elections. It is also easy to understand, meaning even those who are not hugely knowledgeable in politics are able to participate.
• It retains a strong link between an MP and his or her constituency; this provides an access point for citizens to participate in the democratic process. This is not as easy to do in electoral systems that have multi-member constituencies, as your constituency will be much larger so your representative may live too far away for you to be able to visit. If you have more than one representative for your area it also causes the problem of choosing which one of your representatives to approach.
• It tends to produce a strong and stable government, which therefore has a clear majority in the House of commons and a strong mandate to govern (although the 2010 result weakens this argument). A strong government means they will be able to introduce the policies in their manifesto, which they were voted into government to do. A stable governement means they are unlikely to collapse or recieve a 'vote of no confidence,' so we can be sure the government will last its entire 5 year term ensuring the country has stability.

Adolescence is the transitional stage from childhood to adulthood that occurs between ages 13 and 19. The physical and psychological changes that take place in adolescence often start earlier, during the preteen or "tween" years: ages 9 and 12.

Semi -presidential govt:-

1. President -Head of the state
2. Prime minister-Head of the government
3. PM and council are responsible to legislators.

Parliamentary form of govt:-

1. Head of the govt is Prime minister
2. He is leader of majority party in the legislature
3. He is accountable to legislator
4. Head of state may be -monarch and president both are ceremonial executive

Biological classification is the scientific procedure of arranging organisms into groups and subgroups on the basis of their similarities and dissimilarities and placing the group in a hierarchy of categories.
 

Classification

• Artificial system of classification
• Natural system of classification
• Phylogenetic system of classification