Environmental geography is the branch of geography that describes and explains the spatial aspects of interactions between human individuals or societies and their natural environment, these interactions being called coupled human–environment system

An institution is something that works according to rules established or at least acknowledged by law or by custom. Thus, “an established and structured pattern of behaviour or of relationships that is accepted as a fundamental part of a culture” can be referred to as social institutions. There are social institutions that constrain and control, punish and reward. Social institutions can be macro like the state or micro like the family.

(1) Association is partial (2) It is an artificial creation. (3) It is formed by individuals for the pursuitoftheirindividual interest. (4) Significance of association for a person is so log as it serves their purpose. (5) Membership of association is voluntary. We choose our associations. (6) Community sentiment is not an essential feature. (7) It has got its office bearer to manage the affairs (8) It works mostly through written laws and rules

TYPES OF SOCIAL GROUPS
Different sociologists have classified social groups differently. In their classifications they take different criterion into account.
Primary Group and Secondary Group on basis of size/type of relationship
It is the most well known classification given by Cooley on the basis of size and type of relationship shared among its members.

1. Social group refers to a collection of continuously interacting persons who share common interest; culture, values and norms within a given society. 2. Characteristics of social group (a) Persistent interaction to provide continuity (b) Astable pattern of these interactions (c) Asense of belonging (d) Shared interest (e) Acceptance of common norms and values (f) Adefinable structure

(1) It refers to human relationships that are highly personal, intimate, enduring. (2) It is a group of people who live together in a particular locality and share the basic conditions of a common life. To constitute a community the presence of sentiment among the members is necessary. (3) It is a group of people living t o g e t h e r i n a p a rt i c u l a r locality. (4) Community is concrete. (5) It is group of people living in a particular locality and having a feeling of oneness. (6) We can see the group and locate its existence. (7) E.g.: Hindu Community, Parsi Community etc.

Ethnocentrism:

• It is considered only their culture as superior and have an inferiority complex towards other cultures.
• They do not have moral respect towards other cultures.
• Ethnocentrism avoids mingling with other cultures.

Cosmopolitanism:

• The superior and have an inferiority complex towards other cultures is not prevalent in cosmopolitanism
• It encourages the exchange of values and ideas between different cultures.
• Cosmopolitanism has much more forward-thinking compared to ethnocentrism.

The leaves of ferns are often called fronds. Fronds are usually composed of a leafy blade and petiole (leaf stalk). Leaf shape, size, texture and degree of complexity vary considerably from species to species. A fern leaf or frond. They have vascular tissue with leaf blades and a stalk, which runs from the base of the frond to the tip. Their primary roles are in photosynthesis and reproduction as well as providing many other uses for ferns.

The Goldfinch is being compared to engine. We know that a machine can work only with the presence of a fueled engine. The poet had earlier observed that the tree was silent. But when the goldfinch entered its thickness, it starts up. The tree is considered as a machine which starts working when the engine enters it.

    Another explanation is that the goldfinch is the engine and the baby birds are the machine. They were silent until their mother came. But when their mother came to them with food they started to make noises. In this case, the goldfinch is the engine, the baby birds the machine and the food is the fuel.

Economics is important for many areas of society. It can help improve living standards and make society a better place. Economics is like science in that it can be used to improve living standards and also to make things worse. It partly depends on the priorities of society and what we consider most important. Economics is the important you get to know how societies, governments, businesses, households, and individuals allocate their scarce resources. The economics can also provide valuable knowledge for making decisions in everyday life. Economics is concerned with the optimal distribution of resources in society.

Marx argued that human society had progressed through different stages. These were : primitive communism, slavery, feudalism and capitalism. He believed capitalism would give way to socialism. • Capitalist society was marked by an ever intensifying process of alienation operating at several levels. • But he believed that capitalism was nevertheless a necessary and progressive stage of human history because it created the preconditions for an egalitarian future free from both exploitation, and poverty. • Historical materialism is a theory of history out lined by Marx and Friedrich Engels. It focuses on human societies and their development through history, arguing that history is the result of material conditions rather than ideas.

The grandmother was used to the life of the village. She got up early in the morning. She woke up her grandson and got him ready for school. She was very much concerned about the education of the narrator. She accompanied him to his school. She sat in the temple reading the scriptures. She was friendly even to the village dogs and fed them regularly.

1. Definition of Society: Society is a web of social relationship. It is group of people who share a common culture, occupy a particular territorial area and feel themselves a unified and distinct entity.

II. Major Characteristics of Society: Despite the

variations in our understanding of society, the fact

remains that it is central concept in sociology. Characterization of society can be provided in terms of

certain traits.

Harry M. Johnson enlists the following characteristics: (i) Definite territory, (ii) Progency, (ii) Culture and, (iv) Independence

A brief description of each trait is given below:

1. Definite Territory: (a) A society is a territorial group. Some nomadic societies move about within a much larger territory than they occupy at any one time, but they regard the whole range as "their" country.

(b) There are of course, territorial groups within societies, for instance, claus, neighbourhoods, political outfits, cities, countries, etc.

2. Progency: (a) Members form every society. They are recruited in different ways also. But in a large number, the members of a society come by means of human reproduction within the group of people.

(b) Several societies also obtain members by adoption,

enslavement, conquest or immigration. But reproduction

within the group itself remains a fundamental source of

new members, in fact progeny is the most important

trait of society.

3. Culture : (a) A Society has a 'Comprehensive' culture in the sense that it is culturally self-sufficient. For instance, a society can carry on trade with other societies, but the cultural patterns involved in the trade are a part of the culture of the society itself.

The means of payment and the forms of contracts are culturally patterned.

(b) A comprehensive culture can have sub-cultures as well. For example we can

take the case of our own country. The Indian people have a comprehensive culture which gives them an identity. We have a common culture, a family system, a set of religious communities, linguistic entities, village communities, and above all history of shared pains and pleasures. The sub-cultures are, for instance, Rajasthan culture, Punjabi culture, Assami culture, etc.

(c) Bear in mind each sub-culture is characterised by its

respective characteristics. For good mutual relations

and harmony we should not try disturb any sub

culture.

4. Independence: The fourth and last trait of society is independence. It refers that a further characteristic of a society is that it is a sub-group of any other. We may define "Society" as such as permanent self contained and an integrated group.

The growth of sociology in India

• During the course of their rule in India, the British officials realised that for smooth administration, it was important that they acquire knowledge of Indian society and culture. This prompted the origin of Sociology in India.
• Western sociological writings about Indian society were sometimes misleading. For instance, the understanding and portrayal of the Indian village was unchanging. Many Indian scholars thus, took to sociological studies to close such gaps.
• The diversified nature of the Indian society in terms of region, language, religion, ethnicity, caste, etc also led to the growth of sociology in India in connection with the discipline of social anthropology. This is a characteristic feature different from that of the western countries where both disciplines have been kept distinct from each other.
• Indian sociologist realised that the transformation process of contemporary Indian society is different from that of the western society. Modernity as understood in the western European society is the outcome of scientific process and democratic ideas. Wheres as the same process of modernity was introduced in Indian society under the colonial regime.

Dr BR Ambedkar

Constitution Assembly set up a Drafting Committee under the Chairmanship of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar  on 29 August, 1947 to prepare a Draft Constitution for India. The Constitution of India was adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 26 November 1949 and came into force on 26 January 1950.

A Constitution of a country is a set of written rules that are accepted by all people living together in a country. Constitution is the supreme law that determines the relationship among people living in a territory and also the relationship between the people and government. A constitution performs several functions:
(i) It generates a decree of trust and coordination that is necessary for different kind of people to live together.
(ii) It species how the government will be constituted, who will have power to take which decisions.
(iii) It lays down limits on the powers of the government and tells us what the rights of the citizens are.
(iv) It expresses the aspirations of the people about creating a good society.

A mole is defined as that amount of substance which contains Avogadro's number of atoms if the substance is atomic or Avogadro's number of molecules if the substance is molecular. 1 mole of carbon atoms = 6.022 ×10²³ atoms of carbon.