One's own sense of individuality, personal characteristics, motivations, and actions. What we perceive ourselves to be. Evaluating ourselves in relation to our peers of similar status, similar characteristics, or similar qualities. The self-talk of intrapersonal communication.

Grandmother was an old and short lady. Her face was covered with wrinkles. She always wears white dress and take beads of rosary in her hands. She was a polite and kind lady. She was a very religious woman. When narrator live with her in village. She always feed dogs with stale chapattis. But after coming in city she was unable to feed dogs with chapattis. Because in city there are no dogs. 

Also she cannot help the narrator in her studies because she don't know about science and English. She was sad to hear that there was no teaching about God and scriptures in narrator's school. She also think that music was not meant for gentle folk. 

But when narrator went to abroad for his further studies. She felt very sad. Now, she spent most of her time by spinning at the wheel and praying. She feed the sparrows in her spare time. When she feed the sparrows they sat on her head, hand etc. and start chapping like they are talking with her. 

When the narrator came from the abroad. She felt happy and collect all the women of her neighborhood and start singing the homecoming of warriors. Due to overwork, she developed fever. She told her family members that her end was near. But the doctor said she would recover soon. She don't spend time with her family members, instead she continued praying; till she breathed her last.

By distrust of statistics, we mean lack of confidence in statistical statements and statistical methods. In other words, distrust of statistics implies that people look upon statistics with doubt and suspicion.

Following are some remarks :

1. Statistics can prove or disprove anything.
2. There are three types of lies : lies, damned lies and statistics.
Following are the main reasons for distrust of statistics :
(i) Figures are manipulated by dishonest persons to present a wrong picture of the facts.

(ii) People do not really know about statistics.

An empirical relation exists in between mean, median and mode which is 

Mode = 3(Median) − 2(Mean)

1. Equity Shares: Equity shares are the most important source of raising long term capital by a company. They represent the ownership of a company and therefore, the capital raised by issue of these shares is called owner’s funds. These shareholders do not get a fixed dividend. They get according to the earnings of the company. They receive what is left after all other claims on the company’s income and assets have been settled. They enjoy the reward and also bear the risk of ownership. They have voting rights. Using their voting rights, they get participation in management of the company.
2. Preference Shares: Preference shareholders are called so because they enjoy some preferential rights over equity shares. They get dividend at a fixed rate and dividend is given on these shares before any dividend on equity shares. When company winds up, preference shares are paid before equity shares. Preference shares also have a right to participate in excess profits left after payment being made to equity shares. They also have a right to participate in the premium at the time of redemption. In lieu of these preferential rights, their voting rights are taken i.e. they are not eligible for voting. Preference shares have some characteristics of equity shares as well as debentures. They are safer investment with stable return from investor’s point of view and free from control from owner’s point of view.

Chromosomes are thread-like structures present in the nucleus, which carries genetic information from one generation to another. They play a vital role in cell division, heredity, variation, mutation, repair and regeneration.

Based on the number of centromeres present

1. Monocentric: having only one centromere
2. Holocentric: having diffused centromere and microtubules are attached along the length of a chromosome
3. Acentric: chromosome may break and fuse together to form a chromosome without a centromere. It cannot attach to the mitotic spindle
4. Dicentric: chromosomal aberration where chromosomes break and fuse together with two centromeres. They are also unstable as two centromeres tend to migrate to opposite poles resulting in fragmentation

The nucleus is a sphere-shaped organelle found in eukaryotic cells. It contains the genetic material of the cell in the form of nucleic acids. It is responsible for controlling all activities of the cell. and contains a nuclear membrane, chromosomes, nucleolus and nucleoplasm.

The Endomembrane system is a membranous component of the eukaryotic cell. The cytoplasm of the cell contains a system of membranous organelles that are suspended in it. The organelles are termed as a system even though they have different structures and functions as they are essential to the working of the cell. All these organelles work in coordination and they include the cell membrane, vacuoles, the nuclear membrane, lysosomes, Golgi complex, vesicles and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).

The cell membrane is also known as the plasma membrane. It is the outermost covering of animal cells. It is a semi-permeable membrane composed of lipids and proteins. The main functions of the cell membrane include:

1. Protecting the integrity of the interior cell.

2. Providing support and maintaining the shape of the cell.

3. Helps in regulating cell growth through the balance of endocytosis and exocytosis.

4. The cell membrane also plays an important role in cell signalling and communication.

5. It acts as a selectively permeable membrane by allowing the entry of only selected substances into the cell.

Prokaryotic cell envelope possess chemically complex cell envelope. The cell envelope comprises of three layers: the outermost glycocalyx, the cell wall and the plasma membrane. All the three layers together act as a single protective unit.
Bacteria is classified into two groups based on the response to the gram staining method −
Gram positive:- Cells that take up the gram stain and are stained dark blue or purple.
Gram negative:- Cells that do not take up the gram stain and are stained pink or light red.
If glycocalyx is present as a loose sheath it is called slime layer. At times glycocalyx is present as thick and tough layer then it is called capsule.
The cell wall determines the shape of the cell and also provides structural support to the cell. The plasma membrane is semi-permeable in nature.
A special membranous structure called mesosome is formed by the extensions of plasma membrane into the cell.
Bacteria may be motile or non-motile based on the presence of thin filamentous extensions called flagella. Flagella helps in motility. Bacterial flagella are composed of three parts −
1.Filament
2.Hook
3.Basal Body
Pili are elongated structures made up of pilin proteins. Fimbriae are small bristle like fibres which mostly help in attachment of the bacteria to different surfaces.

Prokaryotic cells have different characteristic features. The characteristics of the prokaryotic cells are mentioned below.

1. They lack a nuclear membrane.

2. Mitochondria, Golgi bodies, chloroplast, and lysosomes are absent.

3. The genetic material is present on a single chromosome.

4. The histone proteins, the important constituents of eukaryotic chromosomes, are lacking in them.

5. The cell wall is made up of carbohydrates and amino acids.

6. The plasma membrane acts as the mitochondrial membrane carrying respiratory enzymes.

7. They divide asexually by binary fission. The sexual mode of reproduction involves conjugation.

CELL THEORY

• Schleiden and Schwann together formulated the cell theory.
• Rudolf Virchow (1855) first explained that cells divided and new cells are formed from pre-existing cells.
• Cell theory states that
• All living organisms are composed of cells and products of cells.
• All cells arise from pre-existing cells.