Simple Pendulum

A simple pendulum is defined as an object that has a small mass (pendulum bob), which is suspended from a wire or string having negligible mass.     

• Whenthe pendulum bob is displaced it oscillates on a plane about the vertical line through the support.
• Simple pendulum can be set into oscillatory motion by pulling it to one side of equilibrium position and then releasing it.

In the above image one end of a bob of mass m is attached to a string of length L and another to a rigid support executing simple harmonic motion.                            

The body movements in humans are of the following types:

• Flexion
• Lateral Flexion
• Dorsiflexion
• Plantarflexion
• Extension
• Hyperextension
• Abduction
• Adduction
• Transverse Abduction
• Transverse Adduction
• RotationLateral Rotation
• Medial Rotation
• Supination
• PronationProtraction
• Retraction
• Elevation
• Depression
• Reversion
• Eversion
• Opposition

Below are the reasons given for non popularity of departmental stores in Inida:

1. High cost:

One of the major disadvantages of such stores is that the cost of doing business is very high. Due to excessive departmentalisation and additional facilities offered, cost of such business remains high. In order to cover such costs, goods are generally sold at a high price. As a result, only rich customers who care for quality and services take the advantages of departmental stores.

2. Local inconvenience:

Since departmental stores are situated at central shopping areas, people living at distant places can not avail the services of such stores. For buying daily use goods and frequently purchased items, such stores are of little use since the customer cannot go to a long distance to purchase daily use items. Rather, customers prefer purchases from nearby shops.

3. Higher rent for premises:

As departmental stores are located at central shopping areas, the rents of such premises are usually very high. This also adds to the overhead expenses.

4. Lack of personal touch in selling:

In departmental stores, there is always absence of personal touch in selling because of hired salesmen, managers and supervisors. These hired personnel with different likings and temperaments cannot provide personal attention to the customers. On the other hand, a small retailer can pay personal attention to the needs of the customers.

5. Lack of proper supervision:

There is always a lack of proper supervision in the departmental store operations because of the expenses of the business. Management has to depend upon managers and supervisors who may lack interest in the business.

6. Large capital:

Departmental store requires large amount of capital for establishment and operation. In fact, a departmental store cannot be started with small capital.

We need courts to apply the law of the country. The Judiciary is also responsible for upholding the rights of citizens and seeing that no one including the government violates them.

A nerve impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another through junctions called synapses. A synapse is formed by the membranes of a pre-synaptic neuron, which may or may not be separated by a gap called synaptic cleft. There are two types of synapses, namely, electrical synapses and chemical synapses. At a chemical synapse, the membranes of the pre-post synaptic neurons are separated by a fluid-filled space called synaptic cleft. Chemicals called neurotransmitters are involved in the transmission of impulses at these synapses. The axon terminals contain vesicles filled with these neurotransmitters. When an impulse (action potential) arrives at the axon terminal, it stimulates the movement of the synaptic vesicles towards the membrane where they fuse with the plasma membrane and release their neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft. The releases neurotransmitters bind to their specific receptors, present on the post-synaptic membrane. This binding opens ion channels allowing the entry of ions which can generate a new potential in the postsynaptic neuron.

Industrial capitalism came to villages and cities of modern world so many workers started to work and stay.

Many number of shops also came as a result. In fact, it also increased problem of bad sanitation and overpopulation.

Industrial Revolution have gained wealth across all nature of capitalism aspects across the smaller in scale.

Until the 1970s, historians used the term ‘industrial revolution’ for the changes that occurred in Britain from the 1780s to the 1820s.
From then, it was challenged, on various grounds. Industrialisation had actually been too gradual to be considered a ‘revolution’. It carried processes that already existed towards new levels. Thus, there was a relatively greater concentration of workers in factories, and a wider use of money. Until well into the nineteenth century, large regions of England remained untouched by factories or mines and therefore the term ‘industrial revolution’ was regarded as inaccurate: England had changed in a regional manner, prominently around the cities of London, Manchester, Birmingham or Newcastle, rather than throughout the country. Could the growth in the cotton or iron industries or in foreign trade from the 1780s to the 1820s be called revolutionary? The impressive growth of cotton textiles, based on new machinery, was in an industry that relied on a non-British raw material, on sales abroad (especially India), on non-metallic machinery, and with few links to other branches of industry. Metallic machinery and steam power was rare until much
later in the nineteenth century. The rapid growth in British imports and exports from the 1780s occurred because of the resumption of
trade with North America that the War of American Independence had interrupted. This growth was recorded as being sharp only because it started from a low point.

Indicators of economic change occurring before and after 1815-20 suggest that sustained industrialisation was to be seen after rather than before these dates. The decades after 1793 had experienced the disruptive effects of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. Industrialisation is associated with a growing investment of the country’s wealth in ‘capital formation’, or building infrastructure and installing new machinery, and with raising the levels of efficient use of these facilities, and with raising productivity. Productive investment, in these senses, grew steadily only after 1820, as did levels of productivity. The cotton, iron and engineering industries had accounted for less than half of the industrial output until the 1840s. Technical progress was not limited to these branches, but was visible in other branches too, like agricultural processing and pottery.

Let us assume that T>0^∘C 
Heat lost by water= heat gained by ice to melt+ heat gained by water formed from ice
⇒300×1×(50−T)=150×80+150×1×(T−0) 
⇒T=6.7^∘C
⇒T=6.7^∘C
Hence our assumption that T>0^∘C  

There are three modes of heat transfer.

1. Conduction: Heat conduction is a process in which heat is transferred from the hotter part to the colder part in a body without involving any actual movement of the molecules of the body. Heat transfer takes place from one molecule to another molecule as a result of the vibratory motion of the molecules. Heat transfer through the process of conduction occurs in substances which are in direct contact with each other. It generally takes place in solids.
2. Convection: In this process, heat is transferred in the liquid and gases from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature. Convection heat transfer occurs partly due to the actual movement of molecules or due to the mass transfer. For example. Heating of milk in a pan.
3. Radiation:  It is the process in which heat is transferred from one body to another body without involving the molecules of the medium. Radiation heat transfer does not depend on the medium. For example: In a microwave, the substances are heated directly without any heating medium.

Some characteristic features of Euglenoids are as follows.

• Euglenoids (such as Euglena) are unicellular protists commonly found in fresh water.

• Instead of cell wall, a protein-rich cell membrane known as pellicle is present.

• They bear two flagella on the anterior end of the body.

• A small light sensitive eye spot is present.

• They contain photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophyll and can thus prepare their own food. However, in absence of light, they behave similar to heterotrophs by capturing other small aquatic organisms.

• They have both plant and animal-like features, which makes them difficult to classify and hence they are called as connecting link between plants and animals.

• City life began in Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia is derived from the Greek words ‘mesos’, meaning middle, and ‘potamos’, meaning river.)
• It is a flat land between the Euphrates and the Tigris rivers that is now part of the Republic of Iraq.
• Mesopotamian civilization was based on definite plan. 
• The first Mesopotamian tablets, written around 3200 BCE, contained picture-like signs and numbers.
• Mesopotamians wrote on tablets of clay.

Algae reproduce asexually by a variety of spores such as ,

1) Zoospores : these are flagelated , often with an eyespot. Normally these are formed under favourable conditions e.g. Chlamydomonas.
In Vaucheria, compound zoospores called synzoospore are formed.

2) Aplanospores : these are non motile thin walled zoospores , formed by cleavage of protoplasts within a cell. They are formed under unfavourable conditions e.g. Ulothrix

3) Akinetes : these are formed under unfavourable conditions as method of perinnation. They are thick walled and non motile. On release they form new thalli e.g. Anabaena

4) Hypnospores: these are thick walled aplanospores and are formed during unfavourable conditions. Under prolonged unfavourable conditions the protoplasm of Hypnospores divides to make cysts e.g. Chlamydomonas nivalis.

5) Tetraspores : these are haploid thin walled non motile spores formed after reduction division in diploid tetrasporangia e.g. members of Rhodophyceae and Phaeophceae.

6) Autospores : these are similar to the parent cell. In Chlorella and Scenedesmus autospores acquire all characteristics of parent cells before their discharge from sporangium.