• The human digestive system consists of the alimentary canal and the associated glands.

Alimentary canal 

• The alimentary canal begins with an anterior opening – the mouth, and it opens out posteriorly through the ****.
• The mouth leads to the buccal cavity or oral cavity, which has a number of teeth and a muscular tongue and each tooth is embedded in a socket of jaw bone with a type of attachment called as thecodont.
• A set of temporary milk or deciduous teeth is replaced by a set of permanent or adult teeth, and the type of dentition is called diphyodont.
• An adult human has 32 permanent teeth, which are of four different types
• incisors (I)
• canine (C)
• premolars (PM)
• and molars (M).
• Arrangement of teeth in each half of the upper and lower jaw in the order I, C, PM, M is represented by a dental formula which in human is 2123/2123.
• The tongue is a freely movable muscular organ attached to the floor of the oral cavity by the frenulum, and the upper surface of the tongue has small projections called papillae, some of which bear taste buds.
• The oesophagus and the trachea open into the pharynx.
• A cartilaginous flap called epiglottis prevents the entry of food into the glottis, which is the opening of the wind pipe.
• The oesophagus is a thin, long tube which extends posteriorly passing through the neck, thorax and diaphragm and leads to a ‘J’ shaped bag like structure called stomach.
• The stomach has three major parts
• a cardiac portion into which the oesophagus opens
• a fundic region
• a pyloric portion which opens into the first part of small intestine.
• Small intestine is distinguishable into three regions
• a ‘U’ shaped duodenum
• a long coiled middle portion jejunum
• a highly coiled ileum.
• The opening of the stomach into the duodenum is guarded by the pyloric sphincter.
• Ileum consists of
• caecum
• colon
•  
• Caecum is a small blind sac from which a vestigial organ called vermiform appendix
• The colon is divided into three parts
• an ascending
• a transverse
• a descending part.
• The descending part opens into the rectum which opens out through the ****.
• The wall of alimentary canal from oesophagus to rectum possesses four layers
• Serosa
• muscularis
• sub-mucosa
• Serosa is the outermost layer and is made up of a thin mesothelium and some connective tissues.
• Muscularis is formed by smooth muscles usually arranged into an inner circular and an outer longitudinal layer.
• The submucosal layer is formed of loose connective tissues.
• Mucosa is the innermost layer which forms rugae in the stomach and small finger-like foldings called villi in the small intestine.
• The cells lining the villi produce numerous microscopic projections called microvilli giving a brush border appearance.
• Villi are supplied with a network of capillaries and a large lymph vessel called the lacteal.
• Mucosal epithelium has goblet cells which secrete mucus that help in lubrication.
• Mucosa forms gastric glands in the stomach crypts of Lieberkuhn in different parts of the alimentary canal.

According to Stokes law, if a spherical body falls into a viscous liquid then the force acting at the interface is proportional to – Radius of the spherical body, velocity of the sphere, and viscosity of this given fluid.

This invitation to purchase shares is also known as the initial public offering (IPO)<wbr />, through which a public company can raise the funds it requires. 

Initial public offerings (IPOs) are when a company offers stock shares to the public for the first time. IPOs can help a growing company expand, and it also allows early investors to cash in on their investments.

IPO grading is the grade assigned by Sebi-registered credit rating agency or agencies to an initial public offering (IPO). The grade represents a relative assessment of the fundamentals of that issue in relation to the other listed securities in India.

Here, one must note that the IPO grading is done without considering the price band at which the security is offered in the IPO. Investors need to make an independent judgment regarding the price at which they should bid for.

If a body is taken from the surface of the earth to a point at a height ‘h’ above the surface of the earth, then r_i = R and r_f = R + h then,

ΔU = GMm [1/R – 1/(R+h)]

ΔU = GMmh/R(R + h)

When, h<<R, then, R + h = R and g = GM/R².

On substituting this in the above equation we get,

Gravitational Potential Energy ΔU = mgh

When a body of mass (m) is moved from infinity to a point inside the gravitational influence of a source mass (M) without accelerating it, the amount of work done in displacing it into the source field is stored in the form of potential energy this is known as gravitational potential energy. It is represented with the symbol Ug.

The equation for gravitational potential energy is:

⇒ GPE = m⋅g⋅h

Where,

• m is the mass in kilograms,
• g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 on Earth)
• h is the height above the ground in meters

गीता भारतीय संस्कृति की आधारशिला है । हिन्दू शास्त्रों में गीता का सर्वप्रथम स्थान है । गीता में 18 पर्व और 700 श्लोक है । इसके रचयिता वेदव्यास हैं । गीता महाभारत के भीष्म पर्व का ही एक अंग है ।v

लोकप्रियता में इससे बढ़कर कोई दूसरा ग्रन्ध नहीं है और इसकी लोकप्रियता दिनों-दिन बढ़ती जा रही है । गीता में अत्यन्त प्रभावशाली ढंग से धार्मिक सहिष्णुता की भावना की प्रस्तुत किया गया है जो भारतीय संस्कृति की एक विशेषता है ।

धर्मक्षेत्र कुरुक्षेत्र में कौरवों और पांडवों के मध्य युद्ध में अर्जुन अपने स्वजनों को देखकर युद्ध से विमुख होने लगा । धर्मयुद्ध के अवसर पर शोकमग्न अर्जुन को गीता का उपदेश देते हुए श्रीकृष्ण ने कहा कि व्यक्ति को निष्काम भाव से कर्म करते हुए फल की इच्छा नहीं करनी चाहिए-

कर्मण्येवाधिकारस्ते मा फलेषु कदाचन । मा कर्मफलहेतुर्भू: मा ते सङ्‌गोस्त्वकर्मणि ।।

आत्मा की नित्यता बताते हुए श्रीकृष्ण ने अर्जुन से कहा कि यह आत्मा अजर-अमर है । शरीर के नष्ट होने पर भी यह आत्मा मरती नहीं है । जिस प्रकार व्यक्ति पुराना वस्त्र उतार कर नया वस्त्र धारण कर लेता है, उसी प्रकार आत्मा भी पुराना शरीर छोड़कर नया शरीर धारण कर लेती है ।

आत्मा को न तो शस्त्र काट सकते हैं, न अग्नि जला सकती है, न वायु उड़ा सकती है और न जल ही गीला कर सकता है । आत्मा को जो मारता है और जो इसे मरा हुआ समझता है, वह दोनों यह नहीं जानते कि न यह मरती है और न ही मारी जाती है । हे अर्जुन ! युद्ध में विजयी हुए तो श्री और युद्ध न करने पर अपयश मिलेगा इसलिए युद्ध कर ।

गीतानुसार हमें साधारण जीवन के व्यवहार सेघृणा नहीं करनी चाहिए अपितु स्वार्थमय इच्छाओं का दमन करना चाहिए । अहंकार को नष्ट करना चाहिए । अहंकार के रहते हुए ज्ञान का उदय नहीं होता, गुरु की कृपा नहीं होती और ज्ञान ग्रहण करने क्षमना नहीं होनी ।

गीता में भगवान का कथन है कि मुझे जिस रूप में माना जाता है, उसी रूप में मैं व्यक्ति को दर्शन देता हूँ, चाहे शैव हो या वैष्णव या कोई और ! गीता के उपदेशों को सभी ने स्वीकृत किया है, अत: यह किसी सम्प्रदाय विशेष का ग्रंथ नहीं है । उत्कृष्ट भावना का परिचायक होने के कारण गीता का हिन्दू धर्म ग्रन्थों में सर्वोपरि स्थान प्राप्त है।

भारत और विदेशों में भी गीता का बहुत प्रचार है । संसार की शायद ही ऐसी कोई सभ्य भाषा हो जिसमें गीता का अनुवाद न हो । पाश्चात्य विद्वान हम्बाल्ट ने गीता से प्रभावित होकर कहा है कि- ”किसी ज्ञात भाषा में उपलब्ध गीतों में सम्भवत: सबसे अधिक सुन्दर और दार्शनिक गीता है । गीतः-गज्त्र त्रैंश्त्र जगत की परम निधि है । ”

आज का युग परमाणु युद्ध की विभीषिका से भयभीत है । ऐसे में गीता का उपदेश ही हमारा मार्गदर्शन कर सकता है । आज का मनुष्य प्रगतिशील होने पर भी किंकर्त्तव्य- विमूढ़ है । अत: वह गीता से मार्गदर्शन प्राप्त कर अपने जीवन को सुखमय और आनन्दमय बना सकता है ।

गीता में सम्पूर्ण वेदों का सार निहित है । गीता की महत्ता को शब्दों में वर्णन करना असम्भव है । यह स्वय भगवान कृष्ण के मुखारविन्द से निकली है । स्वयं भगवान कृष्ण इसका महत्व बताते हुए कहते हैं- कि जो पुरुष प्रेमपूर्वक निष्काम भाव से भक्तों को पढ़ाएगा अर्थात् उनमें इसका प्रचार करेगा वह निश्चय ही मुझको (परमात्मा) प्राप्त होगा ।

जो पुरुष स्वयं इस जीवन में गीता शास्त्र को पढ़ेगा अथवा सुनेगा वह सब प्रकार के पापों से मुका हो जाएगा । गीता शास्त्र सम्पूर्ण मानव जाति के उद्धार के लिए है । कोई भी व्यक्ति किसी भी वर्ण, आश्रम या देश में स्थित हो, वह श्रद्धा भक्ति-पूर्वक गीता का पाठ करने पर परम सिद्धि को प्राप्त कर सकता है ।

अत: कल्याण की इच्छा करने वाले मनुष्यों के लिए आवश्यक है कि वे गीता पढ़ें और दूसरों को पढायें । यही कल्याणकारी मार्ग है ।

Compile Time Errors

जनहित याचिका (जहिया), भारतीय कानून में, सार्वजनिक हित की रक्षा के लिए मुकदमे का प्रावधान है। अन्य सामान्य अदालती याचिकाओं से अलग, इसमें यह आवश्यक नहीं की पीड़ित पक्ष स्वयं अदालत में जाए। यह किसी भी नागरिक या स्वयं न्यायालय द्वारा पीडितों के पक्ष में दायर किया जा सकता है।

The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a perfect crystal at a temperature of zero Kelvin (absolute zero) is equal to zero.

Entropy, denoted by ‘S’, is a measure of the disorder/randomness in a closed system. It is directly related to the number of microstates (a fixed microscopic state that can be occupied by a system) accessible by the system, i.e. the greater the number of microstates the closed system can occupy, the greater its entropy. The microstate in which the energy of the system is at its minimum is called the ground state of the system.

At a temperature of zero Kelvin, the following phenomena can be observed in a closed system:

• The system does not contain any heat.
• All the atoms and molecules in the system are at their lowest energy points.

Therefore, a system at absolute zero has only one accessible microstate – it’s ground state. As per the third law of thermodynamics, the entropy of such a system is exactly zero.

I. How to make notes:

1. Read the passage carefully.

2. Give a heading to your work. The heading will be based on the following considerations.
(i) What is the main idea of the passage?
(ii) Frame a heading based on the main idea.
(iii) Write it in the middle of the page.

3. Give subheadings
(i) How has the main idea been presented and developed?
(ii) Are there two or three subordinate/associated ideas?
(iii) Frame subheadings based on these.

4. Points are to be noted under each subheading.

Are there further details or points of the subtitles that you wish to keep in these notes? These are called points. Points may have subpoints.

5. All subheadings should be at a uniform distance from the margin.
6. Indenting – Points should also be at the same distance away from the margin.
7. Do not write complete sentences.
8. Abbreviations should be used.

II. Help with abbreviations:

1. Use standard abbreviations and symbols as far as possible.

(i) Capitalise the first letters of the names of states, countries or organisations.
For example: UP, USA, UK and UNO.

(ii) Common abbreviations
Sc. (for science), Mr, Mrs, Dr, govt, BSc, etc.

(iii) Common symbols such as i.e., e.g., Rx, /, ∴ , +ve, -ve, → (leading to) ↑ (rising), ↓ (falling), =, >, <

(iv) Measurements and figures – 100″, 100′, 100 kg, 100 mm, 100 mL.

2. Make your own abbreviations.

(i) Keep the main sounds of the words: edn (education), progm. (programme).
(ii) It is a good practice to keep the first few and the last letters of the word such as education – edu’n, developing – dev’ing. Retain the suffix so that later when you are going over the notes, you may recall the full form of the word, for example: ed’nal (educational), prog’ve (progressive).

3. Take the following caution:

(i) Do not get overenthusiastic about abbreviations.
(ii) You should not abbreviate every word.
(iii) One abbreviation in one point is enough.
(iv) As a general rule, the heading should not be abbreviated.
(v) You may use abbreviations in subheadings.

III. Your notes should look like this:

(i) Indenting is essential.

Notice that indenting, i.e. shifting from the margin, has been used to clearly indicate subheadings, points and subpoints. Subheadings, though separated by points, occur below one another. Similarly, points and subpoints should also come below one another. Such use of indenting gives your notes a visual character. At a glance, you can see the main idea and its various aspects.

(ii) Numbering-You may follow any system but you should be consistent, that is, you should follow the same system throughout. Some examples are given below.

IV. Abbreviations:

Note-making is an informal exercise as it is meant for your use only. You will not present a formal document in note form. Notes will be developed into a more formal piece of writing. Since notes are informal and are meant for your use only, you can abbreviate long words or use accepted abbreviations and symbols.

Writing a summary: The summary is an abstract of the passage. Expand your heading and subheadings and write down the ideas developed in the passage in the specified word limit.g

Agricultural prosperity went hand in hand with political stability.

In many areas, especially in the Nile valley, the state supported : irrigation systems, the construction of dams and canals, and the digging of wells, all of which are crucial for harvests.

Many new crops such as cotton, oranges, bananas, and watermelons etc. were grown and even exported to Europe.

• Blood coagulation or clotting is the mechanism to prevent excessive loss of blood from the body.
• Reddish brown scum formed at the site of a cut is due to clot formed mainly of a network of threads called fibrins in which dead and damaged formed elements of blood are trapped.
• Fibrins are formed by the conversion of inactive fibrinogens in the plasma by the enzyme thrombin.
• Thrombins are formed from another inactive substance present in the plasma called prothrombin by an enzyme complex known as thrombokinase.
• Calcium ions play a very important role in clotting.

Isoelectronic species: These are those species which have the same number of electrons.They are the ions of different elements which have same number of electrons but differ from one another in magnitude of nuclear charge.

Examples of isoelectronic species with 10 electrons:N^3-,O^2-,F^-

The elemental analysis of a cell shows that it is composed of various elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine, etc.

But what do these elements constitute? What are the properties of the compounds formed by these elements?

Only a chemical analysis can answer these questions.

Analytical techniques provide information regarding different compounds (organic and inorganic), their molecular formula and structures. They also help us to isolate and purify one compound from another.

Here is a simple experiment to find the Chemical Composition Analysis in Biomolecules.

Take a piece of living tissue and crush and mix it with an acid. After its filtration, we obtain two portions. The fraction which is obtained as filtrate is acid-soluble portion while the other fraction is acid-insoluble, which retain on the filter membrane. This shows that within the tissues, there two or more compounds which have distinct properties.

Take another piece of tissue and burn it, once all the water in it is evaporated. All carbon compounds will be oxidized on burning. The left out ash gives us the inorganic compounds like calcium, magnesium, sulfate, phosphate, etc., in the tissue.

Glycolysis is the process of breakdown of glucose(6C) to produce 3C pyruvic acid and energy is glycolysis.

Fermentation is a process in which breakdown of sugar occurs by the microorganism in the absence of oxygen to produce ethanol.

ATP is produced by the oxidative decarboxylation

The respiratory pathway is an amphibolic pathway because it includes both catabolic and anabolic reaction. During respiratory reaction breaks down of organic substances like carbohydrates, fats, proteins occurs to release energy. Such a process is considered catabolic in nature

Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation states that every particle attracts every other particle in the universe with a force that is directly proportional to the product of the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

The poem is a tribute to the poet’s mother. She is looking at an old photograph of her mother which has a frame of cardboard. The picture has three girls in which the middle one is the oldest and tallest.

It is her mother when she was twelve years old or so. Beside her, on both sides are her two cousins, Betty and Dolly, who are holding her hands and are younger than her. They went for paddling on a beach holiday. Her uncle took the photograph then. The poet could not help but notice her mother’s sweet face. The sea touched her terribly transient feet which depicted that she changed over the years and the sea remained the same.

After twenty-thirty years, her mother would laugh at the photograph. She would make the poet look at the photograph and tell her how their parents would dress them up for the beach holiday. The beach holiday was her mother’s favourite past memories while her laugh was the poet's favourite memory. Both of them lost something which they cherished a lot and yet cannot live that moment again.

Those sweet moments were memories now.

Now, the poet’s mother had been dead for the past twelve years, which is the same number as of her age when the photograph was taken back then. She cannot express the grief that she has from her mother’s absence.