लेखक को अपने दादा से विशेष लगाव था जिसका प्रमाण इस घटना से मिलता है कि जब लेखक के दादाजी की मृत्यु हुई तो वह अपने दादाजी के कमरे में ही बंद रहने लगा। वह अपने दादाजी के बिस्तर पर उनकी भूरी अचकन ओढ़कर - इस प्रकार सोता था मानो वह अपने दादाजी से लिपटकर सोया हुआ है।

It is true that the scarcity is the root of all economic problems. If there had been no scarcity there would have been no economic problem. This would have not necessitated the study of economics.

In our daily life, we face various forms of scarcity. The queues at the railway booking counters, over crowded buses, heavy traffic on roads, the rush to get a ticket to watch a movie of a popular film actor or actress, are all the manifestations of scarcity. We face scarcity because the things that satisfy our wants are limited in availability.

Further, the resources which the producers have are limited and also have alternative uses. For instance, take the case of food that we eat everyday. It satisfies our want of nourishment. 

Farmers employed in agriculture grow crops that produce our food. At any point of time, the resources in agriculture like land, labour, water, chemical fertilizers, etc, all these resources have alternative uses.

The same resources can be used in the production of non-food crops. Thus, alternative uses of resources give rise to the problem of choice between different commodities that can be produced by those resources.

War brings with it death and destruction. Marga Minco's short story "The Address" describes human predicament that follows war. War had caused an upheaval in the lives of the people of Holland, as they lost their lives and homes. Mrs S was also a victim of the war. So when the narrator, Mrs S's daughter, went to Mrs Dorling's house to claim those articles with which her mother's precious memories were associated, Mrs Dorling was surprised to see the narrator at her door and even pretended not to recognize her. The narrator was shocked to see the 'nice belongings' of her mother lying in Mrs Dorling's house. She felt nostalgic and the things appeared to have lost their worth in the absence of their true owner. Therefore, she decided to leave those things and forget the address forever. Thus the story presents the upheaval in the lives of the narrator and her mother caused by the war. The story shows how war brings a dehumanizing effect on human beings. It kills the finer feelings of love and sympathy. It makes persons cruel and selfish.  

The title 'Ailing Planet' is aptly justified. Man's recklessness, greed and indifference to the needs of the planet, have literally made its condition exactly like a patient needing immediate treatment. The illness of pollution has reached its final stage. 

The following lines in the text support the title “The Ailing Planet”.

• “Are we to leave our successors a scorched planet of advancing deserts, impoverished landscapes and ailing environment.
• A three-year study using satellites and aerial photography conducted by the United Nations, warns that the environment has deteriorated so badly that it is ‘critical’ in many of the eighty-eight countries investigated.

The writer’s grandmother was a very old woman. She was religious-minded and noble-hearted. In the house, she always carried a rosary in her hands. She kept telling the beads of the rosary and reciting prayers silently. She read holy books in the village temple. She would say her prayers while getting the child ready for school. She used to feed the dogs in the village and the sparrows in the city. She treated the author with the utmost affection. The author was sent abroad for five years for further studies. He thought that this might upset his grandmother, but she did not object and went to the railway station to see him off. When he returned after five years, she was there to welcome him. She was so happy that she collected the women in her neighbourhood and sang songs and beat the drum to celebrate his homecoming.

She was not formally educated. She had no knowledge of English and Science. But she was serious about the education of her grandson. She even helped him with his lessons in the village. But she was disturbed to know that music lessons were being given at the city school. It pained her to note that there was no teaching about God and holy books. She hated music. She belonged to the old generation.

A n s w e r ;
अवन आकार की झोपड़ियाँ जिसे चरवाहे ऋतु प्रवास के दौरान उठाकर घूमते थे।
It was the oven-shaped huts which pastoral and semi-nomadic communities used to carry with them.
 

i. 

ANSWER

The manufacture of ammonia by Haber's process is an exothermic reaction. According to Le Chatelier's principle maximum yield of an exothermic reaction can be obtained at low temperatures. There are 4 molecules on reactant side and 2 on product side. According to Le Chatelier's principle if you increase the pressure the system will respond by favouring the reaction which produces fewer molecules. So the maximum yield of ammonia will be obtained at high pressure and low temperature

JOINT STOCK COMPANY

Meaning – Joint stock company is a voluntary association of persons for profit, having a capital  divided into transferable shares, the ownership of which is the condition of membership.

FEATURES

1. Incorporated association – The company must be incorporated or registered tender the companies Act 1956. Without registration no company can come into existence.

2. Separate Legal Existence – It is created by law and it is a distinct legal entity independent of its members. It can own property, enter into contracts, can file suits in its own name.

3. Perpetual Existence – Death, insolvency and insanity or change of members as no effect on the life of a company. It can come to an end only through the prescribed legal procedure.

4. Limited Liability – The liability of every member is limited to the nominal value of the shares bought by him or to the amt. guaranteed by him. Transferability of shares – Shares of public Co. are easily transferable. But there are certain restrictions on transfer of share of private Co. Common Seal- It is the official signature of the company and it is affixed on all important documents of company.

5. Separation of ownership and control – Management of company is in the hands of elected representatives of shareholders known individually as director and collectively as board of directors.

MERITS

1. Limited Liability – Limited liability of shareholder reduces the degree of risk borne by him.

2. Transfer of Interest – Easy transferability of shares increases the attractiveness of shares for investment.

3. Perpetual Existence – Existence of a company is not affected by the death, insanity,

Insolvency of member or change of membership. Company can be liquidated only as per the provisions of companies Act.

4. Scope for expansion – A company can collect huge amount of capital from unlimited no. of members who are ready to invest because of limited liability, easy transferability and chances of high return.

5. Professional management – A company can afford to employ highly qualified experts in different areas of business management.

LIMITATIONS

1. Legal formalities – The procedure of formation of Co. is very long, time consuming, expensive and requires lot of legal formalities to be fulfilled.

2. Lack of secrecy – It is very difficult to maintain secrecy in case of public company, as company is required to publish and file its annual accounts and reports.

3. Lack of Motivation – Divorce between ownership and control and absence of a direct link between efforts and reward lead to lack of personal interest and incentive.

4. Delay in decision making – Red papism and bureaucracy do not permit quick decisions and prompt actions. There is little scope for personal initiative.

5. Oligarchic management – Co. is said to be democratically managed but actually managed by few people i.e. board of directors. Sometimes they take decisions keeping in mind their personal interests and benefit, ignoring the interests of shareholders and Co.

TYPES OF COMPANIES
On the basis of ownership, companies can be divided into two categories –
Private & Public.

Difference between Private Company & Public Co.

FORMATION OF A COMPANY

Formation of a company means bringing a company into existence and starting its business. The steps involved in the formation of a company are:

(i) Promotion

(ii) Incorporation

(iii)Capital subscription

(iv) Commencement of business.

A private company has to undergo only first two steps but a public company has to undergo all the four stages.

1. Promotion:

Promotion means conceiving a business opportunity and taking an initiative to form a company.

Step in Promotion:

1. Identification of Business Opportunity : The first and foremost function of a promoter is to identify a business idea e.g. production of new product or service.

2. Feasibility Studies: After identifying a business opportunity the promoters undertake detailed studies of technical, Financial, Economic feasibility of a business.

3. Name Approval: After selecting the name of company the promotors submit an application to the Registrar of companies for its approval.

4. Fixing up signatories to the Memorandum of Association: Promotors have to decide about the director who will be signing the memorandum of Association.

5. Appointment of professional: Promoters appoint merchant bankers, auditors etc.

6. Preparation of necessary documents: The promoters prepare certain legal documents such as memorandum of Association, Articles of Association which have to be submitted to the Registrar of the companies.

2. Incorporation

Incorporation means registration of the company as body corporate under the companies Act 1956 and receiving certificate of Incorporation.

Steps for Incorporation

1. Application for incorporation: Promoters make an application for the incorporation of the company to the Registrar of companies.

2. Filing of necessary documents: Promoters files the following documents:

(i) Memorandum of Association.
(ii) Articles of Association.
(iii) Statement of Authorized Capital
(iv) Consent of proposed director.
(v) Agreement with proposed managing director.
(vi) Statutory declaration.

3. Payment of fees: Along with filing of above documents, registration fee has to be deposited which depends on amount of the authorized capital.

4. Registration: The Registrar verifies all the document submitted. If he is satisfied then he enters the name of the company in his Register.

5. Certificate of Incorporation: After entering the name of the company in the register. The Registrar issues a Certificate of Incorporation. This is called the birth certificate of the company.

III. Capital Subscription:

A public company can raise funds from the public by issuing shares and Debentures. For this it has to issue prospectus and undergo various other formalities:

Step required for raising funds from public:

1. SEBI Approval: SEBI regulates the capital market of India. A public company is required to take approval from SEBI.

2. Filing of Prospectus: Prospectus means any documents which invites offers from the public to purchase share and Debenture of the company.

3. Appointment of bankers, brokers, underwriters: Banker of the company receive the application money. Brokers encourage the public to apply for the shares, underwriters are the person who undertake to buy the shares if these are not subscribed by the public. They receive a commission for underwriting.

4. Minimum subscription: According to the SEBI guide lines minimum subscription is 90% of the issue amount. If minimum subscription is not received then the allotment cannot be made and the application money must be returned to the applicants within 30 days.

5. Application to Stock Exchange: It is necessary for a public company to list their shares in the stock exchange therefore the promoters apply in stock exchange to list company shares.

6. Allotment of Shares: Allotment of shares means acceptance of share applied. Allotment letters are issued to the shareholders. The name and address of the shareholders submitted to the Registrar.

IV. COMMENCEMENT OF BUSINESS:

To commence business a public company has to obtain a certificate of commencement of Business. For this the following documents have to be filled with the registrar of companies.

1. A declaration that 90% of the issued amount has been subscribed.
2. A declaration that all directors have paid in cash in respect of allotment of shares made to them.
3. A statutory declaration that the above requirements have been completed and must be signed by the director of company.

Important documents used in the formation of company:

1. Memorandum of Association – It is the principal document of a company. No company can be registered without a memorandum of association and that is why it is sometimes called a life giving document.

Contents of Memorandum of Association:

1. Name clauses – This clause contains the name of the company. The proposed name should not be identicator similar to the name of another exiting company.

2. Situation clauses – This clause contains the name of the state in which the registered office of the company is to be situated.

3. Object clause – This clause defines the objective with which the company is formed. A company is not legally entitled to do any business other than that specified in the object clause.

4. Liability Clauses – This clause limits the liability of the members to the amount unpaid on the shares held by them.

5. Capital clause – This clause specifies the maximum capital which the company will be authorized to raise tough the issue of shares called authorized capital.

2. Articles of Association:

The articles of Association are the rules for the internal management of the affairs of a company the articles defines the duties, rights and powers of the officers and the board of directors.

Contents of the Article:
1. The amount of share capital and different classes of shares.
2. Rights of each class of shareholders.
3. Procedure for making allotment of shares.
4. Procedure for issuing share certificates.
5. Procedure for forfeiture and reissue of forfeited shares.
6. Rules regarding casting of votes and proxy voting
7. Procedure for selection and removal of directors
8. Dividend declaration and payment related rules
9. Procedure for capital readjustment
10. Procedure regarding winding up of the company.

2. Prospectus:

Prospectus means any document which invites deposits from the public to purchase share or debentures of a company.

Main contents of the Prospectus:
1. Company’s name and the address of its registered office.
2. The main object of the company
3. The number and classes of shares.
4. Qualification shares of the directors
5. The name and addresses of the directors, managing director or manager.
6. The minimum subscription which is 90% of the size of the issue.
7. The time of opening and closing of the subscription list.
8. The amt. payable on the application and allotment of each class of share.
9. Underwriters to the issue.
10. Merchant bankers to the issue.

2. Statement is Lieu of Prospectus:

A public company having a share capital may sometimes decide not to raise funds from the public because it may be confident of obtaining the required capital privately. In such case it will have to tile a statement in lieu of prospectus with the Registrar of companies. It Contains information much similar to that of a prospectus.

CHOICE OF FORM OF BUSINESS ORGANISATION

The following factors are important for taking decision about form of organization:

1. Cost and ease in setting up the organization: Sole proprietorship is least expensive and can be formed without any legal formalities to be fulfilled. Company is also expensive with lot of legal formalities.

2. Capital consideration: Business requiring less amount of finance prefer sole proprietorship & partnership form, where as business activities requiring huge financial resonances prefer company form.

3. Nature of business: If the work requires personal attention such as tailoring unit, cutting saloon, it is generally setup as a sole proprietorship. Unit engaged in large scale manufacturing are more likely to be organized in company form.

4. Degree of control desired: A person who desires full and exclusive control over business prefers proprietorship rather than partnership or company because control has to be shared in these cases.

5. Liability or Degree of Risk: Projects which are not very risky can be organized in the form of sole proprietorship partnership whereas the risky ventures should be done in company form of organization because the liability of shareholders is limited.

At the time of the origin of the earth every planet and meteorites were floating in the space and the materials of the earth were same as that of the meteorites. So, the scientists can calculate the composition of rocks ofthe earth by studying the materials found in the meteorites.

Chromatography: It is a technique used to separate mixtures in to their components, purify. Compounds which can be solid or liquid and also test the purity of compounds.

• In this technique the mixture of substances are applied on to a stationary phase .Then a pure solvent or a mixture of solvents is allowed to move slowly over stationary phase .The components of mixture gets gradually separated from one another .The moving phase is mobile phase .

 The chromatography is classified into two categories:

• Adsorption chromatography
• Partition chromatography

Black body radiation: Black body is defined as perfect emitter and absorber of light.
For example, whenever we heat an Iron ball like objects, on heating they become first Red, then Orange, then Yellow and at very high temperature they become White.

According to the electromagnetic theory, the energy is emitted or absorbed continuously. So, the radiations emitted may vary in intensity, but should have same colour. The change in color shows, that wavelength also changes .This indicates non continuous flow of energy. So, it couldn’t be explained by electromagnetic theory. This phenomenon shows, that if we keep on heating the light that it emits. It will show changes in wavelength. That means the wavelength keeps on decreasing but after White there is no further change.