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Yogita Ingle 6 years, 3 months ago
Appendicular skeleton comprises of limb bones and girdles. Limb bones are again divided into bones of forelimbs and bones of hindlimbs. Girdles comprises of pectoral girdle and pelvic girdle
Limb Bones
- There are two pairs of limbs—a pair of forelimbs and a pair of hind limbs.
- Each fore limb is made of 30 bones.
- Bones of the forelimbs are
|
Bone |
Region |
Number |
|
Humerus |
Upper arm |
1 |
|
Radius |
Forearm |
1 |
|
Ulna |
Forearm |
1 |
|
Carpals |
Wrist |
8 |
|
Metacarpals |
Palm |
5 |
|
Phalanges |
Fingers |
14 |
- Each hind limb is made of 30 bones.
- Bones of the hind limbs are
|
Bone |
Region |
Number |
|
Femur |
Thigh |
1 |
|
Tibia |
Shank |
1 |
|
Fibula |
Shank |
1 |
|
Tarsals |
Ankles |
7 |
|
Metatarsals |
Instep |
5 |
|
Phalanges |
Toes |
14 |
|
Patella |
Fingers |
1 |
Pectoral Girdle
- The pectoral girdle is formed of two identical halves.
- Each half of the girdle consists of the following bones — scapula and clavicle.
- Scapula:
- The scapula is also called the shoulder bone.
- It is the flat, triangular bone located at the back of the thorax.
- It has a slightly elevated ridge called the spine.
- The spine projects as a flat, expanded process called the acromion.
- Below the acromion is a cup-shaped cavity called the glenoid cavity.
- The glenoid cavity articulates with the humerus of the forelimbs.
- Clavicle:
- It is also called collar bone.
- It is a rod-shaped bone extending between the neck and the shoulder.
Pelvic Girdle
- It is made of two coxal bones.
- Each coxal bone comprises three bones—ilium, ischium and pubis.
- At the point where all the three bones fuse is a depression called the acetabulum. The head of the femur articulates with the acetabulum.
A line of fusion called the pubic symphysis is observed where the two halves meet
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Yogita Ingle 6 years, 3 months ago
- The vascular system consists of complex tissues, the phloem and the xylem.
- The xylem and phloem together constitute vascular bundles.
- In dicotyledonous stems, cambium is present between phloem and xylem, such vascular bundles because of the presence of cambium possess the ability to form secondary xylem and phloem tissues, and hence are called open vascular bundles.
- In the monocotyledons, the vascular bundles have no cambium present in them, hence they do not form secondary tissues and they are referred to as closed vascular bundles.
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- It has a lower freezing point (-39°C) and a high boiling point (35°C). Hence it can be used over a wide range of temperature.
- It is shiny liquid metal, hence can be easily seen through the glass of the thermometer tube.
- It has a fairly large expansion for a small change in temperature.
- It does not stick to the glass tube.
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Rh grouping
- The Rh antigen similar to one present in Rhesus monkeys is also observed on the surface of RBCs of majority of humans, hence the antigen is known as Rh antigen.
- The individuals having Rh antigen are called Rh positive (Rh+ve) and those in whom this antigen is absent are called Rh negative (Rh-ve).
- An Rh-ve person, if exposed to Rh+ve blood, will form specific antibodies against the Rh antigens, and hence Rh group should also be matched before transfusions.
- A special case of Rh incompatibility has been observed between the Rh-ve blood of a pregnant mother with Rh+ve blood of the foetus , which leads to a disease known as erythroblastosis foetalis.
- Rh antigens of the foetus do not get exposed to the Rh-ve blood of the mother in the first pregnancy as the two bloods are well separated by the placenta, during the delivery of the first child, maternal blood may get exposed to small amounts of the Rh+ve blood from the foetus and the mother starts preparing antibodies against Rh in her blood.
- In case of subsequent pregnancies, the Rh antibodies from the mother (Rh-ve) can leak into the blood of the foetus (Rh+ve) and destroy the foetal RBCs, which cause severe anaemia and jaundice to the baby leading to a condition known erythroblastosis foetalis.
- Erythroblastosis foetalis can be avoided by administering anti-Rh antibodies to the mother immediately after the delivery of the first child.
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Yogita Ingle 6 years, 3 months ago
A general stabilizing interaction which involves the delocalization of sigma electrons of a C-H bond of an alkyl group directly attached to an unsaturated system (or) to a species with an unshared p -orbital such as Carbocations (or) free radicals is known as hyperconjugation. Hyperconjugation is a permanent effect.
Ex: Hyperconjugation in ethyl carbo cation.
One of the carbon-hydrogen bonds of the methyl group aligns in the same plane with the empty p -orbital of the positively charged carbon atom.
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