The process of transferring the seedlings from the nursery to the main field by hand is called transplantation or transplanting.

Structure of Bacteria

The structure of bacteria is known for its simple body design. Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms with the absence of the nucleus and other <a href="https://byjus.com/biology/cell-organelles/">c</a>ell organelles; hence, they are classified as prokaryotic organisms.

They are also very versatile organisms, surviving in extremely inhospitable conditions. Such organisms are called extremophiles. Extremophiles are further categorized into various types based on the types of environments they inhabit:

1. Thermophiles
2. Acidophiles
3. Alkaliphiles
4. Osmophiles
5. Barophiles
6. Cryophiles

Another fascinating feature of bacteria is their protective cell wall, which is made up of a special protein called peptidoglycan. This particular protein isn’t found anywhere else in nature except in the cell walls of bacteria.

But few of them are devoid of this cell wall, and others have a third protection layer called capsule. On the outer layer, one or more flagella or pili is attached, and it functions as a locomotory organ. Pili can also help certain bacteria to attach themselves to the host’s cells. They do not contain any cell organelle as in animal or plant cell except for ribosomes.

Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis. In addition to this DNA, they have an extra circular DNA called plasmid. These plasmids make some strains of bacteria resistant to antibiotics.

A metal is a material that has a very lustrous appearance when polished, fractured or freshly prepared and has a high thermal and electrical conductivity. Heavy metals are a type of metals that have comparatively very high densities, atomic numbers, thermal and electrical conductivities, etc. Hence, the key difference between metal and heavy metal is that heavy metals have relatively very high densities, atomic weights or atomic numbers compared to other metals.

Toxicity is another major difference between metal and heavy metal. Some metals can be toxic while others are not, but heavy metals can be toxic when present in higher concentrations. Moreover, metals do not bioaccumulate easily, but heavy metals do.

Geography is divided into two main branches: human geography and physical geography. There are additional branches in geography such as regional geography, cartography, and integrated geography.

The angle of deviation is defined as the angle which is obtained from the difference between the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction created by the ray of light travelling from one medium to another that has a different refractive index.

Organisms choose to reproduce asexually by different means. Some of the asexual methods are binary fission (e.g. Amoeba, bacteria), budding (e.g. Hydra), fragmentation (e.g. Planaria), spore formation (e.g. ferns) and vegetative propagation (e.g. Onion).  

Everything available in our environment which can be used to satisfy our needs, is called a resource. It should be technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally acceptable. Only then, it can be termed as a ‘Resource’. Examples: minerals, forests, fossil fuels etc.

Refractive index is defined as The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to its speed in a specific medium.

Example: The refractive index of glass <i>n</i>g is 1.52 and refractive index of water<i> n</i>w is 1.33. Since the refractive index of glass is higher than the water, the speed of light in water is faster than the speed of light through glass. 

Coal and petroleum are formed as a result of degradation of ancient plant life which lived millions of years ago. These dead plant matter started to pile up, eventually forming a substance called peat. Over time, heat and pressure from geological processes transformed these materials into coal. Since these are formed from essentially fossils, they are also known as fossil fuels.

Coal:
1. Coal is a power resource, fossil fuel and fund resource.

2. Coal used directly in industries and indirectly for pro­duction of thermal power.

3. Different by-products of coal are used in various in­dustries.

4. As a power resource, use of coal is decreasing.

5. Per unit heat and electricity generation from coal is less.

Petroleum:

1. Petroleum is a power resource, fossil fuel and fund re­source.

2. Petroleum is also used directly for industries and indirectly for electricity generation.

3. Various by-products of crude oil are used in industries as ­raw materials.

4. Use of crude oil is increasing.

5. Per unit heat and electricity generation is much higher than coal.

Tissue culture is a technique in which fragments of plants are cultured and grown in a laboratory. Many times the organs are also used for tissue culture. The media used for the growth of the culture is broth and agar.

This technique is also known as micropropagation. It has proved beneficial for the production of disease-free plants and increase plant yield in developing countries. It only requires a sterile workplace, greenhouse, trained manpower, and a nursery.

Oil palm, banana, eggplant, pineapple, rubber tree, tomato, sweet potato have been produced by tissue culture in the developing countries.

(a) Human Development is the development that enlarges people’s choices and improves their lives. This concept was introduced by Dr. Mahbub-ul-Haq. 

(b)

(i) People are central to all development. Their choice are not fixed but keep on changing on. The basic goal of human development is to create conditions where people can live meaningful lives. 

(ii) To achieve a meaningful life as it should be with some purpose. People must be healthy, be able to develop their talent, participate in society and be free to achieve their goals by full recess to resources, education and health facilities. 

(iii) To have the capability and freedom to make basic choices. This may be remove their inability to acquire knowledge, their material poverty, social discrimination, inefficiency of institutions etc; 

(iv) To build people’s capabilities in the areas of health, education and access to resources is important in enlarging their choices. To set a qualitative change. It cannot take place unless there is an addition to the existing conditions. Development will occur when positive change growth take place. 

Rural-urban composition:

(i)The division of population into rural and urban is based on the residence. This division is necessary because rural and urban life styles differ from each other in terms of their livelihood and social conditions. The age-***-occupational structure, density of population and level of development vary between rural and urban areas. 

(ii)The criteria for differentiating rural and urban population varies from country to country. In general terms rural areas are those where people are engaged in primary activities and urban areas are those when majority of the working population is engaged in non-primary activities.

(iii)The rural and urban differences in *** ratio in Canada and West European countries like Finland are just the opposite of those in African and Asian countries like Zimbabwe and Nepal respectively. In Western countries, males outnumber females in rural areas and females outnumber the males in urban areas.

(iv)In countries like Nepal, Pakistan and India the case is reverse. The excess of females in urban areas of U.S.A., Canada and Europe is the result of influx of females from rural areas to avail of the vast job opportunities. Farming in these developed countries is also highly mechanised and remains largely a male occupation. By contrast the *** ratio in Asian urban areas remains male dominated due to the predominance of male migration.

A cell performs these major functions essential for the growth and development of an organism. Important functions of cell are as follows:

Provides Support and Structure

All the organisms are made up of cells. They form the structural basis of all the organisms. The cell wall and the cell membrane are the main components that function to provide support and structure to the organism. For eg., the skin is made up of a large number of cells. Xylem present in the vascular plants is made of cells that provide structural support to the plants.

Facilitate Growth Mitosis

In the process of mitosis, the parent cell divides into the daughter cells. Thus, the cells multiply and facilitate the growth in an organism.

Allows Transport of Substances

Various nutrients are imported by the cells to carry out various chemical processes going on inside the cells. The waste produced by the chemical processes is eliminated from the cells by active and passive transport. Small molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethanol diffuse across the cell membrane along the concentration gradient. This is known as passive transport. The larger molecules diffuse across the cell membrane through active transport where the cells require a lot of energy to transport the substances.

Energy Production

Cells require energy to carry out various chemical processes. This energy is produced by the cells through a process called photosynthesis in plants and respiration in animals.