In the traditional sense, the term ‘market’ refers to the place where buyers and sellers gather to enter into transactions involving the exchange of goods and services. But in modern marketing sense, the term market has a broader meaning. It refers to a set of actual and potential buyers of a product or service. For example, when a fashion designer designs a new dress and offers it for exchange, all the people who are willing to buy and offer some value for it can be stated to be the market for that dress.

During exhalation, the ribs move downwards

During exhalation, the diaphragm moves up and ribs move downwards and inwards, decreasing the space in the chest cavity, this increases the air pressure inside the lungs and forces the air out of the lungs.

The metal B will be nearer to the top of the activity series of metals because this metal is so reactive that it reacts with most elements to form its compounds. But metal A is less reactive as it exists in free state without reacting with other elements.

(ए) 1832 तक, संथाल लोग दामिन-ए-कोह क्षेत्र में बस गए थे। संथाल बस्तियों का अब तेजी से विस्तार हुआ है। कृषि के लिए जंगलों को तेजी से साफ किया गया। खेती के विस्तार के रूप में कंपनी को अधिक राजस्व मिला।

(b) लेकिन संथाल धीरे-धीरे असंतुष्ट हो गए। उन्होंने पाया कि उन्हें उनका हक नहीं मिल रहा है और उनका शोषण किया जा रहा है। संप्रदाय उन पर भारी कर लगा रहा था।

(ग) साहूकारों ने उन पर उच्च ब्याज दर का आरोप लगाया और जब वे भुगतान करने में असमर्थ थे, तो उन्होंने अपनी जमीन पर कब्जा कर लिया।

(d) जमींदारों ने भी अपने क्षेत्र पर अपनी पकड़ बढ़ानी शुरू कर दी थी। इस प्रकार उन्होंने जमींदार, साहूकारों और राज्य के शोषण के खिलाफ विद्रोह किया।

(() विद्रोह के बाद, अंग्रेजों ने भागलपुर और बीरभूम जिलों से संथाल परगना बनाया। यह माना जाता था कि एक नए राज्य का निर्माण और उनकी सुरक्षा के लिए विशेष कानूनों को पारित करना संथालों को अपमानित करेगा

JOINT STOCK COMPANY

Meaning – Joint stock company is a voluntary association of persons for profit, having a capital  divided into transferable shares, the ownership of which is the condition of membership.

FEATURES

1. Incorporated association – The company must be incorporated or registered tender the companies Act 1956. Without registration no company can come into existence.

2. Separate Legal Existence – It is created by law and it is a distinct legal entity independent of its members. It can own property, enter into contracts, can file suits in its own name.

3. Perpetual Existence – Death, insolvency and insanity or change of members as no effect on the life of a company. It can come to an end only through the prescribed legal procedure.

4. Limited Liability – The liability of every member is limited to the nominal value of the shares bought by him or to the amt. guaranteed by him. Transferability of shares – Shares of public Co. are easily transferable. But there are certain restrictions on transfer of share of private Co. Common Seal- It is the official signature of the company and it is affixed on all important documents of company.

5. Separation of ownership and control – Management of company is in the hands of elected representatives of shareholders known individually as director and collectively as board of directors.

MERITS

1. Limited Liability – Limited liability of shareholder reduces the degree of risk borne by him.

2. Transfer of Interest – Easy transferability of shares increases the attractiveness of shares for investment.

3. Perpetual Existence – Existence of a company is not affected by the death, insanity,

Insolvency of member or change of membership. Company can be liquidated only as per the provisions of companies Act.

4. Scope for expansion – A company can collect huge amount of capital from unlimited no. of members who are ready to invest because of limited liability, easy transferability and chances of high return.

5. Professional management – A company can afford to employ highly qualified experts in different areas of business management.

LIMITATIONS

1. Legal formalities – The procedure of formation of Co. is very long, time consuming, expensive and requires lot of legal formalities to be fulfilled.

2. Lack of secrecy – It is very difficult to maintain secrecy in case of public company, as company is required to publish and file its annual accounts and reports.

3. Lack of Motivation – Divorce between ownership and control and absence of a direct link between efforts and reward lead to lack of personal interest and incentive.

4. Delay in decision making – Red papism and bureaucracy do not permit quick decisions and prompt actions. There is little scope for personal initiative.

5. Oligarchic management – Co. is said to be democratically managed but actually managed by few people i.e. board of directors. Sometimes they take decisions keeping in mind their personal interests and benefit, ignoring the interests of shareholders and Co.

TYPES OF COMPANIES
On the basis of ownership, companies can be divided into two categories –
Private & Public.

Difference between Private Company & Public Co.

FORMATION OF A COMPANY

Formation of a company means bringing a company into existence and starting its business. The steps involved in the formation of a company are:

(i) Promotion

(ii) Incorporation

(iii)Capital subscription

(iv) Commencement of business.

A private company has to undergo only first two steps but a public company has to undergo all the four stages.

1. Promotion:

Promotion means conceiving a business opportunity and taking an initiative to form a company.

Step in Promotion:

1. Identification of Business Opportunity : The first and foremost function of a promoter is to identify a business idea e.g. production of new product or service.

2. Feasibility Studies: After identifying a business opportunity the promoters undertake detailed studies of technical, Financial, Economic feasibility of a business.

3. Name Approval: After selecting the name of company the promotors submit an application to the Registrar of companies for its approval.

4. Fixing up signatories to the Memorandum of Association: Promotors have to decide about the director who will be signing the memorandum of Association.

5. Appointment of professional: Promoters appoint merchant bankers, auditors etc.

6. Preparation of necessary documents: The promoters prepare certain legal documents such as memorandum of Association, Articles of Association which have to be submitted to the Registrar of the companies.

2. Incorporation

Incorporation means registration of the company as body corporate under the companies Act 1956 and receiving certificate of Incorporation.

Steps for Incorporation

1. Application for incorporation: Promoters make an application for the incorporation of the company to the Registrar of companies.

2. Filing of necessary documents: Promoters files the following documents:

(i) Memorandum of Association.
(ii) Articles of Association.
(iii) Statement of Authorized Capital
(iv) Consent of proposed director.
(v) Agreement with proposed managing director.
(vi) Statutory declaration.

3. Payment of fees: Along with filing of above documents, registration fee has to be deposited which depends on amount of the authorized capital.

4. Registration: The Registrar verifies all the document submitted. If he is satisfied then he enters the name of the company in his Register.

5. Certificate of Incorporation: After entering the name of the company in the register. The Registrar issues a Certificate of Incorporation. This is called the birth certificate of the company.

III. Capital Subscription:

A public company can raise funds from the public by issuing shares and Debentures. For this it has to issue prospectus and undergo various other formalities:

Step required for raising funds from public:

1. SEBI Approval: SEBI regulates the capital market of India. A public company is required to take approval from SEBI.

2. Filing of Prospectus: Prospectus means any documents which invites offers from the public to purchase share and Debenture of the company.

3. Appointment of bankers, brokers, underwriters: Banker of the company receive the application money. Brokers encourage the public to apply for the shares, underwriters are the person who undertake to buy the shares if these are not subscribed by the public. They receive a commission for underwriting.

4. Minimum subscription: According to the SEBI guide lines minimum subscription is 90% of the issue amount. If minimum subscription is not received then the allotment cannot be made and the application money must be returned to the applicants within 30 days.

5. Application to Stock Exchange: It is necessary for a public company to list their shares in the stock exchange therefore the promoters apply in stock exchange to list company shares.

6. Allotment of Shares: Allotment of shares means acceptance of share applied. Allotment letters are issued to the shareholders. The name and address of the shareholders submitted to the Registrar.

IV. COMMENCEMENT OF BUSINESS:

To commence business a public company has to obtain a certificate of commencement of Business. For this the following documents have to be filled with the registrar of companies.

1. A declaration that 90% of the issued amount has been subscribed.
2. A declaration that all directors have paid in cash in respect of allotment of shares made to them.
3. A statutory declaration that the above requirements have been completed and must be signed by the director of company.

Important documents used in the formation of company:

1. Memorandum of Association – It is the principal document of a company. No company can be registered without a memorandum of association and that is why it is sometimes called a life giving document.

Contents of Memorandum of Association:

1. Name clauses – This clause contains the name of the company. The proposed name should not be identicator similar to the name of another exiting company.

2. Situation clauses – This clause contains the name of the state in which the registered office of the company is to be situated.

3. Object clause – This clause defines the objective with which the company is formed. A company is not legally entitled to do any business other than that specified in the object clause.

4. Liability Clauses – This clause limits the liability of the members to the amount unpaid on the shares held by them.

5. Capital clause – This clause specifies the maximum capital which the company will be authorized to raise tough the issue of shares called authorized capital.

2. Articles of Association:

The articles of Association are the rules for the internal management of the affairs of a company the articles defines the duties, rights and powers of the officers and the board of directors.

Contents of the Article:
1. The amount of share capital and different classes of shares.
2. Rights of each class of shareholders.
3. Procedure for making allotment of shares.
4. Procedure for issuing share certificates.
5. Procedure for forfeiture and reissue of forfeited shares.
6. Rules regarding casting of votes and proxy voting
7. Procedure for selection and removal of directors
8. Dividend declaration and payment related rules
9. Procedure for capital readjustment
10. Procedure regarding winding up of the company.

2. Prospectus:

Prospectus means any document which invites deposits from the public to purchase share or debentures of a company.

Main contents of the Prospectus:
1. Company’s name and the address of its registered office.
2. The main object of the company
3. The number and classes of shares.
4. Qualification shares of the directors
5. The name and addresses of the directors, managing director or manager.
6. The minimum subscription which is 90% of the size of the issue.
7. The time of opening and closing of the subscription list.
8. The amt. payable on the application and allotment of each class of share.
9. Underwriters to the issue.
10. Merchant bankers to the issue.

2. Statement is Lieu of Prospectus:

A public company having a share capital may sometimes decide not to raise funds from the public because it may be confident of obtaining the required capital privately. In such case it will have to tile a statement in lieu of prospectus with the Registrar of companies. It Contains information much similar to that of a prospectus.

CHOICE OF FORM OF BUSINESS ORGANISATION

The following factors are important for taking decision about form of organization:

1. Cost and ease in setting up the organization: Sole proprietorship is least expensive and can be formed without any legal formalities to be fulfilled. Company is also expensive with lot of legal formalities.

2. Capital consideration: Business requiring less amount of finance prefer sole proprietorship & partnership form, where as business activities requiring huge financial resonances prefer company form.

3. Nature of business: If the work requires personal attention such as tailoring unit, cutting saloon, it is generally setup as a sole proprietorship. Unit engaged in large scale manufacturing are more likely to be organized in company form.

4. Degree of control desired: A person who desires full and exclusive control over business prefers proprietorship rather than partnership or company because control has to be shared in these cases.

5. Liability or Degree of Risk: Projects which are not very risky can be organized in the form of sole proprietorship partnership whereas the risky ventures should be done in company form of organization because the liability of shareholders is limited.

At the time of the origin of the earth every planet and meteorites were floating in the space and the materials of the earth were same as that of the meteorites. So, the scientists can calculate the composition of rocks ofthe earth by studying the materials found in the meteorites.

The First World War started in 1914 AD and ended in 1918 AD.
First World War called the World War as it was fought on land, water and in air. Moreover armies and resources of about 86 nations were involved in the war.

Chromatography: It is a technique used to separate mixtures in to their components, purify. Compounds which can be solid or liquid and also test the purity of compounds.

• In this technique the mixture of substances are applied on to a stationary phase .Then a pure solvent or a mixture of solvents is allowed to move slowly over stationary phase .The components of mixture gets gradually separated from one another .The moving phase is mobile phase .

 The chromatography is classified into two categories:

• Adsorption chromatography
• Partition chromatography

When an object moves in a straight line without coming back, it’s displacement and distance magnitude will always be equal.

We know that displacement is a vector quantity and distance is a scalar quality.
Suppose you walk on a line PQR, say you walk from P to R and then back to Q.
Now your total displacement will be given by the equation PR – RQ because displacement considers direction. But, it is important to note that the distance travelled will be PR + RQ because the distance is a scalar quantity and doesn’t consider direction.

Lark : I have no water. They all have gone out, & forgotten to give me anything to drink.
My throat is dry & burning. Alas! I must die, & part with the warm sunshine, the fresh green meadows, & all the beauty that God has created.
(Then the lark noticed the little daisy, nodded to it and kissed it with its beak)
Lark : You must also fade in here, poor little flower. You & the piece of grass have given me in the exchange for the whole world which I enjoyed. Each blade of grass shall
be green tree for me & each of your white petals a fragrant flower. Alas! You only remind me of what I have lost.
Daisy : I wish I could console the poor lark. I could not move one of my leaves, but the fragrance of the petals streamed forth & was much stronger.
(The bird noticed it, although it was dying with thirst & it was in pain but did not
forrth the flower).

Eyes of some animal's shine in the night because they have a special type of reflective layer behind the pupil of their eyes known as Tapetum Lucidum which enhances the amount of light absorbed by the photoreceptors in their eyes.

No, the electrician should not be allowed to replace the fuse in the house with a piece of wire. This is because every wire cannot be used as a fused filament. A fused filament must have a low melting point such that it could melt and break in response to a large amount of current. Most of the wires have high melting points and hence a wire cannot be used to replace the fuse.