Human beings were able to develop proper technology using his knowledge and intelligence. It has taken man a long time to reach at the present level of technology. In primitive age when the level of technology was very low man was bound to follow the dictates of nature. In those times man was a slave of nature, scared of its powerful force and used to worship nature to make it happy. In these conditions the state of cultural development was also primitive. However, the process was gradual but man developed technology and it is also to be noted that man has been able to utilise this technology only after understanding the various laws of nature. For example; understanding of laws of friction gave birth to many inventions. Similarly after understanding secrets of DNA and laws of genetics, man has overcome many diseases and aeroplanes could be invented only after understanding the laws of aerodynamics.Today the level of technology is touching the heights of sky through which man seems to get free from the natural forces. Earthquake, cyclones, landslides, volcanoes and other natural disasters keep reminding man that he is still a slave to nature.. Technology helped in reducing the harshness of labour, increased labour efficiency and provided leisure to human beings to attend to the higher needs of life. It also increased the scale of production and the mobility of labour.

The Manusmriti laid down what it described as the duties of the chandalas. They were expected to live outside the village; use discarded bowls, with dogs and donkeys as their wealth. They were to wear the clothes of the dead, and eat out of broken dishes; wear ornaments of black iron, and wander constantly.

The animals that reproduce asexually include planarians, hydra, amoeba, a few annelids, etc.

Formation of megaspores from megaspore mother cell called megasporogenesis. It occurs inside the nucellus of ovule of angiosperm. The process begins very early then nucellus is not completely surrounded by the integuments.

A diploid cell in the ovule, called a megasporocyte or a megaspore mother cell, undergoes meiosis and gives rise to four haploid megaspores.

he process of formation of megaspores from the megaspore mother cell.

• It is also called macrospores.
• The megaspore mother cell is diploid.

NAPOLEON had brought revolutionary changes in the administrative field :

1. The Napoleon Civil Code of 1804 did away with all privileges based on birth and established equality before the law.
2. Secured the right of property.
3. Abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
4. Napoleon simplified administrative divisions;
5. In the towns, guild restrictions were removed.

The main features of Mauryan administration were:

• There were five important political centres in the Mauryan Empire: Patliputra (the capital city) and the provincial centres of Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvarnagiri.
• It was not possible for such a large empire to have a uniform administrative system so historians believe that the administrative control was perhaps strongest in the capital and in provincial centres.
• Communications along the land and riverine routes were developed to administer the Empire.
• The army was an important tool for not only extending the territories of the empire but also for administering them.
• Committees and sub-committees were formed for coordinating military activities. They looked after the navy, horses, chariots, elephants, recruiting soldiers and managing transport and food supplies for soldiers.
• Asoka held his Empire together by propagating the doctrine of Dhamma, whose principles were simple and universally applicable. The doctrine propagated the ideas of peace, non-violence and respect towards elders. Dhamma mahamatt as were appointed to spread the principles of Dhamma.
• The last feature of the Mauryan administration is evident in the Asokan inscriptions that we have studied. It is because Ashoka inscribed the main features of his policy of ‘dhamma’. According to the inscriptions, he had also appointed Special officers called Dhamma Mahamtras to spread Dhamma.

Prabhavati Gupta was the daughter of one of the most important rulers in early Indian history, Chandragupta II (c. 375-415 CE). She was married into another important ruling family, that of the Vakatakas, who were powerful in the Deccan

The following are the main principles of Ashoka’s dhamma:

1. People should live in peace and harmony.
2. Everyone should practise the principle of ahimsa, i.e. non-violence and non-injury to all living beings.
3. People should love one another and display respect and tolerance towards other religious faiths.
4. Children should obey their elders and elders should treat children with understanding.
5. People should be truthful, charitable and kind to all, even towards servants and slaves.

Between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, Magadha (in present-day Bihar) became the most powerful Mahajanapada. Modern historians explain this in a variety of ways.
(i) It was a region where agriculture was especially productive.
(ii) Besides, iron mines (in present-day Jharkhand), were accessible and provided resources for tools and weapons.
(iii) Elephants, an important component of the army, were found in forest in the region.
(iv) Moreover, the Ganga and its tributaries provided a means of cheap and convenient communication.

When we look into the sources of the past ordinary people has rarely left any account of their life's experience or thoughts. Hence it becomes very difficult for the scholars to construct their life, however scholars have tried various methods to understand ordinary people by:
1. Examining stories contained in anthologies such as the Jatakas and the Panchatantra. Although stories this tales tends to tell us lots about the ordinary people.
2.  Different types of foodgrains and animal bones have been found during excavation. It gives us information about dietary practices of people.
3.  Remains of houses and pots inform us about their daily and household life.
4. There is a mention of different types of crafts and craftsmen on certain inscriptions. It is a very good source of knowing economic life of people.
5. Some inscriptions and scriptures inform us about king-subject relations, different types of taxes and miseries or happiness of people.