Bulbils are a small bulb-like structure which may be removed to form a new plant. Agave can sexually reproduce by seeds and vegetatively by aerial bulbils and ground level based shoots and rhizomes. Colocasia reproduces sexually by seeds and vegetatively by corms, tubers and root suckers. Zingiber reproduces vegetatively by aromatic articulated rhizomes. Vallisneria reproduces vegetatively through runners.

Micropropagation is the artificial process of producing plants vegetatively through tissue culture or cell culture techniques. In this artificial process of propagation, plants are produced invitro by asexual means of reproduction or by vegetative propagation.

The Nayanars and Alvars led religious movements in south India during the seventh to ninth centuries. The Nayanars were devotees of Shiva while the Alvars were the devotees of Vishnu. They came from all castes including those considered 'untouchable like the Pulaiyar and the Panars. They preached the love of Shiva or Vishnu as the path to salvation. They went from place to place composing beautiful poems in praise of the deities enshrined in the villages they visited and set them to music. There were 63 Nayanars who belonged to different caste backgrounds. There were 12 Alvars who came from equally divergent backgrounds.

The Bhakti and Sufi thinkers used the languages of the common people to expressh their opinions. They often spoke in local languages. So they were well-understood by the common people. Had they used a few distinct languages, they would not have reached to all the people. They would have gone extinct. Hence their use of the local languages proved very significant.

(i) Sanskrit was used by traditional Bhakti saints to sing hymns at different occasions, places of worship and ceremonies.

(ii) The Alvars and Nayanars of Tamil Nadu travelled from place to place singing hymns in Tamil in praise of their Gods. These developed as centres of pilgrimage. Singing compositions of these poet-saints became part of temple rituals in these shrines, as did worship of the saint images.

(iii) Kabir’s poems have survived in several languages and dialects, and some are composed in the special language of nirguna poets, the sant bhasha. Others, known as ulatbansi (upside-down sayings), are written in a form in which everyday meanings are inverted.

(iv)    Baba Guru Nanak, Baba Farid, Ravidas (Raidas), composed their hymns in various languages such as Punjabi and Hindi etc.

(v)    Amir Khusrau wrote and sang in Hindavi or Persian, Punjabi, Urdu and some other form oflanguages.

(vi)    It was not just in sama that the Chishtis adopted local languages. In Delhi, those associated with the Chishti Silsila conversed in Hindavi, the language of the people. Other sufis such as Baba Farid composed verses in the local languages, which were incorporated in the Guru Granth Sahib.

(vii)    Other writers, thinkers, saints etc. composed long poems or masnavis to express ideas of divine love using human love as an allegory. For example, the prem-akhyan (love story) Padmavat composed by Malik Muhammad Jayasi revolved around the romance of Padmini and Ratansen, the king of Chittor. Their trials were symbolic of the soul’s journey to the divine. Such poetic compositions were often recited in hospices, usually during sama.

(viii) The poets of Bigapur and Karnatana wrote short poems in Dakhani, a variant of Urdu.

The need of a strong centre was one of the heated debates in the Constituent Assembly. Jawaharlal Nehru argued for a strong centre along with Dr B. R. Ambedkar. K. Santhanam from Madras however favoured more powers to the state. But the Constituent Assembly realised the importance of having a strong centre. It protected the powers of the centre in the following ways:-

1. The Drafting Committee provided three lists of subjects—Union, State and Concurrent Lists. While subjects of key importance such as defence, home and finance were placed under the Union List, subjects such as agriculture and irrigation were placed under the State List. Both union and state governments had the right to make laws in the Concurrent List. However, the union government was more powerful while making laws on the subjects included in the Concurrent List.
2. The union government was given control over mineral and key industries.
3. Article 356 gave the union government absolute power over the state government as it could then take over the administration of the state during an emergency.
4. The central government had all powers while levying taxes such as custom duties and company taxes. The union government shared income tax and excise duties with the state governments.

Thus, the Constituent Assembly of India protected the powers of the central government.

Change in discourse of national movement:

• Gandhi rejected violent nationalism.
• Gandhi used terms like swaraj, swadeshi, and Indian civilization instead of nation.
• Gandhi’s nationalism was based on satya, ahimsa, karmayoga, ramarajya, tapasya, and moksha etc.
• Class movements to mass movements: champaran satyagraha (1917), Kheda movement (1918), Khilafat movement (1919), non- cooperation movement (1920), civil-disobedience movement (1930), Quit India movement(1942) – these all were mass movements.
• Gandhiji boycotted foreign goods.
• Passive resistance and non-violence became motto.
• Love the enemies and voluntary surrendering to authorities became norm.

National movement was inclusive and representative:

• Women participation: thousands of women came out of their homes and participated in salt satyagraha.
• Working class and professionals participated: lawyers, teachers, professors also joined the national movement.
• Students also boycotted class and participated in the movement in large scale.
• All religion participated: irrespective of religion and caste all people took part in mass movement.
• Business class participated: gave financial assistance and rejected imported goods.

Some of the flaws in Gandhi’s ideology:

• Alliance with Muslim league on religious grounds during non-cooperation movement strengthened the Muslim league as an independent entity, though it brought leaders together but failed to bring Hindus and Muslims together.
• Support of Gandhiji to WW-I – British government didn’t do anything substantial instead brought Black act. Failure to commute death sentence of Bhagat singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru to Life imprisonment. Though cause of opposition to communal award was good but system of joint electorate didn’t let true representatives of depressed classes to lead.

Conclusion:

Gandhi’ arrival was watershed in the national movement; it changed the discourse in significant way. It can be holistically said national movement was inclusive and representative as it covered whole India and its people

Buddha’s teachings and philosophy have been reconstructed from stories, found mainly in the Sutta Pitaka. Although some stories have described his miraculous powers, others have suggested that the Buddha tried to convince people through reason and persuasion and not by displaying his supernatural powers. In one story narrated in the Sutta Pitaka, a griefstricken woman whose child had died came to Buddha. Buddha politely convinced her about the death rather than bring her son back to life. According to the Buddhist philosophy, the world is transient and constantly changing. It is also soulless and there is nothing permanent. With this transient world, sorrow is intrinsic to human beings.

After the death of Buddha, his followers compiled his teachings. These scriptures came to be known as the Tripitakas. Vinay Pitaka has laid down rules for nuns and monks residing in monasteries, Sutta Pitaka contains Buddha’s teachings and Abhidhamma Pitaka contains philosophical debates.

The statement of eminent epigraphist D.C Sirkar has highlighted the important of inscription as single sources of information that touch upon all areas of our life. Following are the main areas we get information about from the inscriptions.
(i) Determination of states’s boundaries: The inscription were cared in the territories of the kings and even more important is not often close to the borders. This helps us find out boundaries of kingdoms and their expansion thereto.
(ii) Names of kings: the names of the kings are mentioned in the inscriptions. The names and titles used by Asoka the great got revealed through inscription only.
(iii) Historic events: the important historical events are mentioned in the inscriptions. The best example is how the event of the killing war is mentioned in the inscription and how Asoka takes to Dhamma.
(iv) Information about conduct of kings: inscription describe the conduct a character of the kings quit well. It is through the inscription only that we know Asoka worked for the welfare of the masses.
(v) Informed about administration: inscription gave information about administration. It is through the inscription. We know that we know Asoka appointed his son as a viceroy.

The main features of Mauryan administration were:

• There were five important political centres in the Mauryan Empire: Patliputra (the capital city) and the provincial centres of Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvarnagiri.
• It was not possible for such a large empire to have a uniform administrative system so historians believe that the administrative control was perhaps strongest in the capital and in provincial centres.
• Communications along the land and riverine routes were developed to administer the Empire.
• The army was an important tool for not only extending the territories of the empire but also for administering them.
• Committees and sub-committees were formed for coordinating military activities. They looked after the navy, horses, chariots, elephants, recruiting soldiers and managing transport and food supplies for soldiers.
• Asoka held his Empire together by propagating the doctrine of Dhamma, whose principles were simple and universally applicable. The doctrine propagated the ideas of peace, non-violence and respect towards elders. Dhamma mahamatt as were appointed to spread the principles of Dhamma.
• The last feature of the Mauryan administration is evident in the Asokan inscriptions that we have studied. It is because Ashoka inscribed the main features of his policy of ‘dhamma’. According to the inscriptions, he had also appointed Special officers called Dhamma Mahamtras to spread Dhamma.<button aria-label="like this post" title="like this post">
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There are many reasons put forth by the scholars regarding end of the Harappan civilization:

(i) Climatic change,  Deforestation,  Excessive Flood, Drying up of rivers,  Earthquake, Landslide etc. These reasons could explain end of one or two settlements. Hoever it cannot explain the end of whole civilization.

(ii) some scholars believes that it was the invasion of Aryan that lead to the end of Harappan civilization. As there are mentions in Rigveda how Lord Indra also known as Puramdar or the "destroyer of fort"has destroyed forts. R E M Wheeler believes that it is not possible such civilization could just vanish unless it was destoyed and was taken over by a new one. There also was evidence of large number of skeleton to prove the point. However this argument has been refuted and no longer holds true.

(iii) Other scholars believe that it was due to the end of one unifying element, it could be state or a ruler. Because after 1800 BCE we find that there are sudden disappearance of seals, weights and other uniform productions. Which scholars believe could be possible if there was an unifying element because such uniformity in size, weights etc could not coincident.

However the mentioned points are all hypothesis and we are still not sure of what could have brought such civilization to an end.

The Buddhist stupas are said to be stories in stone. This is because many story scenes from Buddhist texts have been depicted on the stupas. On the Sanchi stupa, art historians have identified some scenes which are based on stories in Vessantara Jataka.

Main source of income of No-for-Profit organisation is legacies, donations and subscriptions. A non-for-Profit organisations is set up for promoting science, commerce, social cause etc. 

The main purpose is not to earn profits but to provide services. 

Legacy the income received  due to the death of a person who has mentioned the transfer of certain income in the will.

Donations are the major sources of such organisations. People usually donate a certain portion of their income for the welfare of the organisation.

Subscriptions are the side income of the not-for-profit organisation when a person subscribes for any activity in the various clubs inaugurated for societies's welfare. 

• Ziyarat meant pilgrimage to the tombs of sufi saints. Its main objective was to seek the spiritual grace from the Sufi.
• Pilgrimage, called Ziyarat to the tombs of Sufi saints is very common all over the Muslim world. For more than seven centuries people of various creeds, classes and social backgrounds have travelled to the dargahs of the five great chisthi saints and expressed their devotions. This practice is an occasion for seeking the sufi’s spiritual grace (barakat).

Expression for Impedance in LCR series circuit: Suppose resistance R, inductance L and capacitance C are connected in series and an alternating source of voltage V =V₀sinωt is applied across it. (fig. a) On account of being in series, the current (i ) flowing through all of them is the same.

Suppose the voltage across resistance R is V_R, voltage across inductance L is V_L and voltage across capacitance C is V_C. The voltage V_R and current i are in the same phase, the voltage V_L will lead the current by angle 90° while the voltage V_C will lag behind the current by angle 90° (fig. b). Clearly V_C and V_L are in opposite directions, therefore their resultant potential difference =V_C -V_L (if V_C >V_C ). Thus V_R and (V_C -V_L ) are mutually perpendicular and the phase difference between them is 90°. As applied voltage across the circuit is V, the resultant of V_R and (V_C -V_L ) will also be V. From fig.

The phase difference (ϕ) between current and voltage ϕ is given by tanϕ = (X_C - X_L)/R The graph of variation of peak current im with frequency is shown in fig. 

With increase in frequency, current first increases and then decreases. At resonant frequency, the current amplitude is maximum.

The Purusha Sukta is a most commonly used Vedic Sanskrit hymn. It is recited in almost all Vedic rituals and ceremonies. It is often used during the worship of the Deity of Vishnu or Narayana in the temple, installation and fire ceremonies, or during the daily recitation of Sanskrit literature or for one's meditation.

The Purusha Sukta of the Rig Veda says that the four Vamas emerged because of the sacrifice of Purusha, the primeval man. The four vamas were Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. These Vamas had different jobs. 

Chandragupta Maurya

Chandragupta Maurya conquers all of the Macedonian Satrapies in the Indus River Valley. In return, Chandragupta gifted 500 war elephants to Seleucus, which helped him get victory against western Hellenistic kings in the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE

During the Early historic era we see that the Brahmanas producing different texts. And there is close proximity between Brahmanas and the ksatriyas. Through there knowledges the brahmans began to prescribe roles to the diffrent section of the society. And we see that the main role of Ksatriya was to rule over the people and it was ksatriya who had the right to rule, collect taxes, raid etc. But After the decline of the Mauryan empire we see many groups from central asia, such as Shakas and Kushanas forming empire and whose social background were not clear. And we see that the throne was open to anyone who had the power to grap it.

For example in the kingdoms of Tamilakam (the name of the ancient Tamil country, which included parts of present-day Andhra Pradesh and Kerala, in addition to Tamil Nadu) Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas, were ruled by chiefs or kings. And the positiond of chief were not hereditary like the Mauryas.

We also see that many rulers who came from central asia like Shakas , satavahanas had vey obscure social backgrounds. However one of the most important idea that emerged during the Kushanas (c. first century BCE first century CE), who ruled over a vast kingdom extending from Central Asia to northwest India. They began to portray themselves as divine, there are evidence of kushana rulers statue inside temple.

During this time we also see that the position of king or ruler were not secure, for example we see that the Gupta Empire forged a huge empire depended on huge samantas, men who maintained themselves through local resources including control over land. They offered homage and provided military support to rulers. Powerful samantas could become kings: conversely, weak rulers might find themselves being reduced to positions of subordination.

Thus we see that after Mauryas there was a huge change in the idea of kingship.