A. Communalism 

Communalism has been one of the most complex problems that India has been facing. This is generated when individuals belonging to one religion develop excessive affinity to their religion and hatred towards other religions. This kind of feeling promotes religious fundamentalism and fanaticism and proves to be dangerous for the unity and integrity of the country. It is more so for a country like India where people practise all the major religions of the world. But India has been suffering from communalism since independence. As we know, we faced worst kind of communal riots on the eve of independence, and even after. There have been many communal riots in various parts of the country, inflicting immense sufferings on the people.

B. Regionalism 

Regionalism is another obstacle in the way of national integration. On many occasions it encourages people to promote regional interests even at the cost of national priorities. One may think that raising the problems of a particular region is needed to attract the attention of the decision makers and to compel them to fulfill justified regional demands. This thinking is reasonable, because such demands may be based on genuine grievances of the regions and States that have been denied fair shares of projects and industries in the overall structure of development. Those may also be related to the continued neglect of a particular region.

In spite of over six decades of planned development, all regions in our country have not been developed in the desired manner. Along with other factors, the lack of expected socio-economic development results in demands for the creation of new States. Do you know how many times in India various States have been reorganized because of the agitations based on regional aspirations? But when regionalism ignores national interests or encourages people to have negative feelings towards the interests of other regions, it becomes harmful. On many occasions regional protests and demonstrations are based on political considerations. Aggressive regionalism is still more dangerous, as it leads to separatism. We have been experiencing such feelings in certain parts of States of Assam and Jammu and Kashmir.

C. Linguism 

All of us know that India is a multilingual country. People of India speak nearly 2000 languages and dialects. This plurality has been negatively used on many occasions, particularly in the early decades after independence. Every country needs to have a common official language, but it has not been an easy task for India. When a recommendation was made in the Constituent Assembly to recognise Hindi as the official language of India, it was opposed by representatives of almost all the nonHindi speaking areas. A compromise had to be made there. While the Constituent Assembly declared Hindi as the official language, it was provided that English would continue to be used for official purposes of the Union government for a period of 15 years.

When the Official Language Commission set up in 1955 recommended in favour of replacing English by Hindi as an official language, there were widespread protests in all the non-Hindi speaking regions. Such protests and demonstrations were seen once again in 1963, when the Official Language Bill was introduced in Lok Sabha. As a compromise, the Act of 1963 allowed the continued use of English for official purposes without any time limit. Although the demand for language-based States was met comprehensively when the States were reorganized on linguistic basis in 1956, fresh movements are going on in some parts of the country. Such movements generate many challenges for national integration 

D. Extremism 

The extremist movements going on in different parts of the country are yet another challenge to national integration. You must have heard about the Naxalite movement or Maoist movement. These movements quite often use violence, create fear in public life, cause loss of lives of government personnel and people and destroy public property. Mostly the youth participate in such movements. The basic reason for taking up arms by the youth is the continuing state of socio-economic deprivations. Moreover, the day-to-day humiliation, denial of justice, human rights violations, various kinds of exploitation and political marginalization prompt them to join the Naxalite movement. But the extremist activities have been threat to law and order and peaceful living of the people residing in the affected areas.

By voting, citizens are participating in the democratic process. Citizens vote for leaders to represent them and their ideas, and the leaders support the citizens' interests. There are two special rights only for U.S. citizens: voting in federal elections and running for federal office. Our citizens embrace democracy as the best form of government, and have reasonable expectations that it will deliver a better quality of life. In many countries in the region, social and economic conditions slow the consolidation of democratic institutions. Representatives are elected by the public, as in national elections for the national legislature. Elected representatives may hold the power to select other representatives, presidents, or other officers of the government or of the legislature, as the prime minister in the latter case. (indirect representation).

India and Pakistan both have followed a similar developmental strategy. The main similarities between the developmental strategies can be summed up as: 

i. India and Pakistan both have started their developmental programmes based on economic planning soon after their independence in 1947.

ii. Both the countries relied on the public sector for initiating the process of growth and development. 

iii. Both of them have followed the path of mixed economic structure involving the participation of both the state as well as the private sector. 

iv. Both of them introduced economic reforms at the same time to strengthen their economies. 

The Great Leap Forward (GLF) was a campaign initiated in 1958 in China. The aims of this campaign are as follows:

1. The aim of the campaign was to initiate large scale industrialisation in the country concentrating not only in the urban areas but also in the rural ones. 
2. The people in the urban areas were motivated to set up industries in their backyards.
3. In the rural areas, Commune System was implemented. Under this system, people were engaged in collective farming. 

Indian Railways strike of 1974 is a saga of heroism of ordinary railway workers and their families who dared to stand up against the might of the Indian state. It is the most widespread revolt by the working class in independent India and the biggest strike in the history of Indian Railway. How many of us know about this heroic story of the ordinary railwaymen resisting terror unleashed by the Indira Gandhi regime?Indian Railways strike of 1974 The strike commenced on 8 May 1974. The strike was brutally suppressed by government with thousands being sent to jail and losing their jobs. The strike was called off on 27 May 1974. The 1974 strike forced political parties across the spectrum to spell out their stand clearly. The strike also provided a stunning launch pad to mass appeal for those like George Fernandes who, as the president of the All India Railwaymen's Federation (AIRF), was the main leader of the strike. Although portrayed as a failure, the strike achieved later what it sought to achieve then.

) In China, due to topographic and climatic conditions, the area suitable for cultivation is relatively small — only about 10 per cent of its total land area. The total cultivable area in China accounts for 40 per cent of the cultivable area in India. Until the 1980s, more than 80 per cent of the people in China were dependent on farming as their sole source of livelihood. (b) Since then, the government encouraged people to leave their fields and pursue other activities such as handicrafts, commerce and transport. In 2014–15, with 28 per cent of its workforce engaged in agriculture, its contribution to the GDP in China is 9 per cent. (c) In both India and Pakistan, the contribution of agriculture to GDP were 17 and 25 per cent, respectively, but the proportion of workforce that works in this sector is more in India. In Pakistan, about 43 per cent of people work in agriculture, whereas, in India, it is 50 per cent. (d) The sectoral share of output and employment also shows that in all three economies, the industry and service sectors have less proportion of workforce but contribute more in terms of output. In China, manufacturing and service sectors contribute the highest to GDP at 43 and 48 per cent, respectively whereas in India and Pakistan, it is the service sector which contributes the highest by more than 50 per cent of GDP. In the normal course of development, countries first shift their employment and output from agriculture to manufacturing and then to services. (f) This is what is happening in China as can be seen from Table. The proportion of workforce engaged in manufacturing in India and Pakistan were low at 21 and 23 per cent respectively. The contribution of industries to GDP is at 30 per cent in India and 21 per cent in Pakistan. (g) In these countries, the shift is taking place directly to the service sector. Thus, in both India and Pakistan, the service sector is emerging as a major player of development. It contributes more to GDP and, at the same time, emerges as a prospective employer. If we look at the proportion of workforce in the1980s, Pakistan was faster in shifting its workforce to service sector than India and China. (h) India, China and Pakistan employed 17, 12 and 27 per cent of its workforce in the service sector respectively. In 2014, it has reached the level of 29, 43 and 34 per cent, respectively. (i) In the last three decades, the growth of agriculture sector, which employs the largest proportion of workforce in all the three countries, has declined. In the industrial sector, China has maintained a near double-digit growth rate whereas for India and Pakistan growth rate has declined. (j) In case of service sector, China was able to raise its rate of growth during 1980–2015, while India and Pakistan stagnated with its service sector growth. Thus, China’s growth is mainly contributed by the manufacturing and service sectors and India’s growth by the service sector

he important demographic indicators of Indian, China and Pakistan are tabulated as below.

             Demographic Indicators, 2000-01

The important demographic indicators are as follows:

a) Total Population: China is the largest populated country in the world followed by India. The above table depicts that China’s population in 2000-01 was approximately 1303.7 million and that of India and Pakistan was 1103.6 million and 162.4 million respectively.

b)Annual Growth Rate of Population: Although China is the largest populated country but a strong positive point for China is that, its annual growth rate of population is just 1% per annum while that of India and Pakistan is 1.7% and 2.5% per annum. With such a high growth rate it would not be wrong to expect that in the forthcoming decades India will surpass the total population of China.

c)Density of Population: In spite of the fact that China is highly populated and geographically occupying the largest area among the three nations, its density of population is the lowest. It is as low as 138 persons per square kilometer of area compared to 358 and 193 persons in India and Pakistan respectively. Lower the degree of density of population the lower is the pressure on the country’s natural resources and higher is the probability of sustainable development.

d)*** Ratio: This ratio counts the number of females per 1000 males. The *** ratios in all the three countries are almost same with China having a marginally higher *** ratio of 937 females per 1000 males. This depicts the low economic and social status of women in India and Pakistan.

e)Fertility Rate: This rate refers to the number of children a woman gives birth to during her lifetime. China enjoys an upper hand in this case. The fertility rate of Chinese woman is only 1.8 whereas those of India and Pakistan are 3.0 and 5.1. This implies that in India and Pakistan a woman usually gives birth to approximately 3 and 5 children. This is the most important concern for both India and Pakistan, as with such a high fertility rate, population in the coming decades will surpass that of China.

f)Urbanisation: Lastly, China is comparatively more urbanised than India and Pakistan. The rate of urbanisation in China is 36.1% while that in India and Pakistan is 27.8% and 33.4% respectively.  The degree of urbanisation depicts the standard and quality of living of people of a particular country. Also, this confirms the shift in the economic structure of an economy. Higher degree of urbanisation reveals higher industrialisation and development of tertiary sector in the economy.

Thus to sum up, although China is the largest populated country but its other demographic indicators are stronger than those of both India and Pakistan. It would not be wrong to expect a decline in China’s population in the coming decades due to implementation of various policy measures and also due to low annual growth rate of population.

संसार के महानतम् अभिनेता चार्ली चैप्लिन के बारे में रचित इस निबंध में चार्ली के अभिनय की आधारभूत विशेषताओं के बारे में महत्वपूर्ण जानकारियां दी हैं। चार्ली के अभिनय में हास्य और करुणा का मिश्रित संतुलन ही उन्हें आम जनता के अपने कष्टों और दुखों तक ले जाता है। इस तरह वे अभिनय के माध्यम से आम जन से सीधे जुड़ाव करते हैं।

चार्ली के जीवन के एक सौ तीस साल पूरे हो चुके हैं, और उनकी फिल्में बच्चों से लेकर बूढ़ों तक लगातार अपनी लोकप्रियता बनाये हुए हैं। उनकी पहली फिल्म थी, ‘मेकिंग ए लिविंग’ उसे बने हुए भी सौ साल से ज्यादा हो रहे हैं।

चार्ली की फिल्मों का मूल बुद्धि पर नहीं, भावनाओं और मनुष्यता पर टिका हुआ है। उनकी फिल्मों की सबसे बड़ी उपलब्धि तो यही है कि उन्हें पागलखाने के मरीज, साधारण जन और आइंस्टीन जैसे महान प्रतिभावान एक साथ देख सकते हैं और उसका आनंद ले सकते हैं।

चार्ली ने फिल्म कला को लोकतांत्रिक बनाया और दर्शकों की वर्ग तथा वर्ण व्यवस्था को भी तोड़ा। चार्ली के बचपन की कुछ घटनाओं ने उनके जीवन पर गहरा प्रभाव डाला। उनमें से एक यह है, कि जब वे बीमार थे, तब उनकी मां ने उन्हें ईसा मसीह के जीवन के बारे में पढ़कर सुनाया था। उससे उन्हें स्नेह, करुणा और मानवता के गुणों को ग्रहण किया था।

करुणा को हास्य में और हास्य को करुणा में बदल देने वाले वे एकमात्र अभिनेता हैं। भारतीय फिल्मों और अभिनेताओं पर भी चार्ली का खासा असर देखा जा सकता है। राजकपूर तो जीवन भर चार्ली से ही प्रेरित रहे। चार्ली की अधिकतर फिल्में मूक हैं। भाषा से परे। इसीलिये उन्हें ज्यादा से ज्यादा मानवीय होना पड़ा। मानवीयता की भाषा ने ही चार्ली को विश्व भर के दर्शकों तक पहुंचाया। चार्ली की फिल्में आम आदमी की विविध असफलताओं को दिखाती हैं, जो कि असल में उसकी असफलताएं नहीं हैं, बल्कि एक क्रूरतावादी सभ्यता के आगे लाचार हो गये आम आदमी का कड़वा सच हैं।

इस आम आदमी के साथ खड़े चार्ली सदा अमर रहेंगे।

A few such similarities in their development strategies are as follows: All three countries, India, Pakistan and China began towards their economic development at the same time. In addition, India and Pakistan attained independence in the year 1947. However, China was an independent economy in the year 1949. Economic reforms took place in all the three countries. Reforms started in India in 1991, in China in 1978 and in Pakistan in 1988. Economic reforms took place in all the three countries. Reforms started in India in 1991, in China in 1978 and in Pakistan in 1988.

Chinese Development Strategies

• China is a unique blend of market and command economy, but the market is gaining importance
• For many years China has practiced export-led growth with exports exceeding 40% of GDP
• Investment has been a huge growth driver – it was 46% of GDP in 2010. By comparison, Japan in its 1970s boom topped out at 36%, while Korea's share peaked at 39% in the 1990s.
• The surplus on the balance of payments current account has fallen from over 10% of GDP in 2007 to less than 6% in 2011
• Korea, Japan, Germany and Switzerland run trade surpluses with China because they are able to export the high-value manufactured items, particularly investment goods, China needs
• The emphasis of China's growth policy is changing. A quote from Premier Wen Jiabao is central to this - 'China's economy needs to be put on the path of endogenous growth driven by innovation'

Agriculture was the main occupation of the people of the Chinese civilisation. Crops grown included rice, wheat, millet, barley and soya bean. Tea was also grown for the first time by the Chinese. In the beginning, tea was cultivated for exclusively medicinal purposes. It was only later that it was grown for beverage use. An elaborate irrigation system was put in place in order to ensure surplus food production. This reinforced the growth of the Chinese civilisation.

As of 2019, GDP of India is around of 10 times greater than Pakistan. In nominal terms gap is wider (above 10 times) than ppp terms (below 10 times). India is 5th largest country of the world in nominal method and 3rd largest economy in ppp method. Nominal ranking of Pakistan is 43 and PPP ranking is 25. India's economically largest states Maharashtra has GDP ($334 billion) greater than Pakistan. Margin between these two countries was lowest in 1993 when Nominal GDP of India was 5.43x of Pakistan and highest was in 1973 (13.53x).

Both countries together share 9.78% and 18.15% of total Asia's GDP.

Both countries has been neck-to-neck in gdp per capita terms. Margin is being wider in favour of India since 2009. In 2019, per capita income of India would be 1.62 times all time higher than Pakistan on exchange rate basis. 2006 is the previous year when Pakistan was more richer than India. Both nations are at very lower position in World GDP per capita ranking. rank of India is 145 (nominal) and 126 (PPP). World rank of Pakistan is 156 (nominal) and 140 (PPP). Out of 33 Indian states/UTs, 28 states/UTs are more richer than Pakistan.

India attains maximum gdp growth rate of 9.63% in year 1988 and minimum -5.24% in 1979. Pakistan reached an all time high of 10.35% in 1970 and a record low of 0.47% in 1971. During period 1961 to 2017, Pakistan grew by more than 10% in 3 years while India never. GDP growth rate was negative in four years for India, but Pakistan has never showed negative growth rate.

According to CIA Fackbook sector wise GDP composition of India in 2017 are as follows : Agriculture (15.4%), Industry (23%) and Services (61.5%). Sector wise GDP composition of Pakistan in 2017 are : Agriculture (24.7%), Industry (19.1%) and Services (56.3%).

Starting 1978, several reforms were introduced in phases in China. First, agriculture, foreign trade and investment sectors were taken up. Commune lands were divided into small plots. These were allotted to individual households for cultivation.
The reforms were expanded to industrial sector. Private firms were allowed to set up manufacturing units. Also, local collectives or cooperatives could produce goods. This meant competition between the newly sanctioned private sector and the old state-owned enterprises.
This kind of reform in China brought in the necessity of dual pricing. This meant the farmers and industrial units were to buy and sell fixed quantities of raw material and products on the basis of prices fixed by the government. As production increased, the material transacted through the open market also rose in quantity. Special Economic Zones (SEZs) were set up in China to attract foreign investors.

Like the development path of India, Pakistan also followed the import substitution strategy. This was achieved through tariff and other trade barriers that restricted foreign competition. The motive was to make foreign products expensive relative to domestic ones, thereby giving a thrust to domestic industries.

Pakistan follows a mixed economy system, where the public and private sectors co-exist. The green revolution was aimed to increase domestic food grain production in Pakistan. Until the 1970s, domestic industries were given priority. In the 1980s, importance was given to the private sector. New investment was invited and the economy opened up to the rest of the world.

Both India and Pakistan have benefited from a mixed economic system, in that they have been able to maintain high economic growth rates despite high rates of growth of population. The countries have been able to develop a service sector and have used technology increasingly in their production processes. Poverty remains to plague their economies, however. Unemployment is a major concern in India and Pakistan, as the working population is on the rise and commensurate jobs are less in number.

India faced the following three challenges at the time of independence in 1947 :

(i) The first challenge was to shape a nation that was united, yet accommodative of the diversity in our society. India was a land of continental size and diversity. Its people spoke different languages and followed different culture and religions. At that time it aws widely believed that a country full of such kinds of diversity could not remain together for long.

(ii) The second challenge was to establish democracy. The Constitution had granted fundamental rights and extended right to vote to every citizen. India adopted Representative democracy based on the parliamentary form of goverment.The challenge was to develop democratic practices in accordance with the Constitution.

(iii) The third challenge was to ensure the development and well-being of the entire society and not only of some sections. The Constitution had adopted the principle of equality and provided special protection to socially disadvantaged groups and religious and cultural communities. The real challenge was to evolve effective policies for economic development and eradication of poverty.