A large number of people in ancient Greek and Rome were slaves. The prisoners of war and those who could not pay their debts were kept as slaves. The conditions were very bad, they had to work day and night and they were deprived of all the social and political rights.
All types of works were taken from the slaves. They were employed in agriculture, mining, road building, workshops and on the ships.
 

For all of the glory and grandeur of Ancient Rome, the Roman economy never developed into anything terribly complex compared to modern economies. Ancient Rome was an agrarian and slave based economy whose main concern was feeding the vast number of citizens and legionaries who populated the Mediterranean region. Agriculture and trade dominated Roman economic fortunes, only supplemented by small scale industrial production.

The staple crops of Roman farmers in Italy were various grains, olives, and grapes. Olive oil and wine, outside of direct food stuffs, were among the most important products in the ancient civilized world and led Italy's exports. Romans did use a limited form of 2 tier crop rotation, but crop production was largely low output and required a vast number of slaves to operate at any volume.

Farmers could donate surplus crops to the government in lieu of a monetary tax. This system allowed both Republican and Imperial rulers to gain popularity with the masses through free grain distribution and also help to feed the legions at no direct monetary cost. Unfortunately it also left farmers with little incentive to increase productivity or output, since more crop translated to more taxes (and more free grain distributions). Citizens grew dependent on these grain doles and the large volume of trade that ensued. The need to secure grain providing provinces was one important, of many factors that would lead to the expansion and conquests of the Roman State.

Among these conquests were the provinces of Egypt, Sicily and Tunisia in North Africa. These areas were of vital importance in the processing and shipment of grain to Rome. Grain was shipped directly to Ostia, the official port of Rome, and penalties for disruption of the most direct route included deportation or execution. Once delivered to Ostia the grain was weighed, checked for quality, and then sent up the Tiber River on barges to Rome, where it would be repacked for distribution throughout the Empire.

An economic activity is a process that, based on inputs, leads to the manufacture of a good or the provision of a service. Business is considered to be an economic activity because it is undertaken with the aim of earning money or livelihood and not because of any sentimental reason like love, affection or sympathy. Business is considered an economic activity because it is concerned with production, purchase, sale or distribution of goods and Services with an aim of earning profit.

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A Manual of Ancient History the Constitutions, the Commerce, and the Colonies of the States of Antiquity (1877), by A. H. L. Herren. Discover surprising insights and little-known facts about politics, literature, science, and the marvels of the natural world. The Roman style of history was based on the way that the Annals of the Pontifex Maximus, or the Annales Maximi, were recorded. The Annales Maximi include a wide array of information, including religious documents, names of consuls, deaths of priests, and various disasters throughout history.

The slaves were the lowest class. The slaves were captured by the Sumerians from other towns during battles, usually when the Sumerians one they took the slaves. People of higher classes in society could even buy the slaves. Associated with Mesopotamia are ancient cultures like the Sumerians, Assyrians, Akkadians, and Babylonians. The populations of these cities were divided into social classes which, like societies in every civilization throughout history, were hierarchical. These classes were: The King and Nobility, The Priests and Priestesses, The Upper Class, the Lower Class, and The Slaves.

Feudalism was a hierarchical system of land use and patronage that dominated Europe between the 9th and 14th centuries. Under Feudalism, a monarch’s kingdom was divided and subdivided into agricultural estates called manors. The nobles who controlled these manors oversaw agricultural production and swore loyalty to the king. Despite the social inequality it produced, Feudalism helped stabilize European society. But in the 14th century, Feudalism waned. The underlying reasons for this included warfare, disease, political change etc.

Causes of decline of feudalism

Feudalism contained seed of destruction

Feudalism contained in itself the seeds of its destruction. As Henry Martin has observed, “Feudalism concealed in its bosom the weapons with which it would be itself one day smitten”. In course of time when the feudal lords began to assert themselves too much, the kings who headed the feudal hierarchy, thought of bringing them under control. In this task they received full support from the newly emerged middle classes and freemen who were not under the control of the lords.

The middle classes consisting of traders and businessmen provided the king with money with which they began to maintain independent armies. With the help of these armies they were able to bring the turbulent nobles under control. The discovery of gun-powder and weapons like cannons also greatly helped the kings to reduce the lords to subjection and reduced their dependence on them.

Growth of trade and commerce

The liberation of the serfs due to enormous growth in trade and commence also greatly contributed to. The decline of feudalism. With the growth of trade and commerce a number of new cities and towns grew which provided new opportunities for work. The serfs got an opportunity to free themselves of the feudal lords by taking up work in the new towns. It may be observed that according to the existing feudal laws, a serf could become a freeman if he stayed away from the manor for more than one year.

Crusades

The Crusades or the Holy wars also greatly contributed to the decline of the feudal system in the following ways:

1. As a result of these wars the Europeans learnt the use of gun-powder from the Muslims. The discovery of gun­powder greatly undermined the importance of the feudal castles. As a result it was no more possible for the feudal lords to take shelter in these castles and defy the authority of the king.
2. During the Crusade a large number of feudal lords lost their lives which gave a series set back to the feudal system. Some of the feudal lords who returned alive from the Crusades were forced to sell charter of liberties to towns which they once controlled. As a result a larger number of serfs self attained freedom.
3. Crusades opened up trade between Europe and cities of Constantinople and Alexandria. As a result, commerce and industry in Europe received a fillip and a number of important cities developed. The merchants and artisans residing in these cities wished to free themselves from the control of feudal lords. Therefore, they either purchased freedom or ob­tained it by force. They secured the right of self-government and freedom from feudal dues and taxes. After freeing themselves from the control of the nobles, the cities began to maintain their own armed militia and con­structed high turreted walls to protect themselves.

The Hundred Years’ War

To succeed, feudalism required considerable manpower. Vassals and serfs worked the manor year in and year out, bound by law to a lifetime of labor. But when war broke out between England and France in 1337, both nations undertook an unprecedented military buildup. This marked the start of the Hundred Years’ War, a series of intermittent conflicts that lasted until 1543. In both countries, the army swelled its ranks with feudal laborers, undermining the manorial system while increasing the value of commoners by teaching them much-needed military skills.

The Black Death

Ten years after the Hundred Years’ War began, the bubonic plague broke out in Europe. Spreading northwards from Italy, the bacterial infection known as the Black Death claimed at least a third of Western Europe’s total population. With the young men of France and England off at war, agricultural output was already declining. Now there was a new challenge facing feudalism. Manor after manor suffered devastating losses. Conditions were so severe, in fact, that waves of laborers ran away to larger cities, an act that would have once been punishable by law.

Political Changes

Feudalism was a coercive system that granted few individual liberties. Ancient laws kept peasants tied to the land, making their labor compulsory. Yet over time, concepts of individual rights gradually gained footing, especially in England. The 12th century reforms of Henry II, for instance, expanded the legal rights of a person facing trial. In 1215, King John was forced to approve the Magna Carta, a document obligating the crown to uphold common law. Eighty years later, Edward I finally extended parliamentary membership to commoners. These developments gradually made the concept of agricultural servitude appear inexcusable.

Social Unrest

By the 1350s, war and disease had reduced Europe’s population to the point that peasant labor had become quite valuable. Yet conditions for the serfs themselves remained largely unchanged. They were still heavily taxed on wages kept artificially low. Unable to survive in these circumstances, Europe’s peasantry revolted. Between the 1350s and the 1390s, uprisings took place in England, Flanders, France, Italy, Germany and Spain. After an English revolt in 1381, Richard II promised to abolish serfdom. Though he later failed to keep his word, serfdom nonetheless died out in the next century.

End of the Middle Ages

The end of serfdom meant the end of feudalism itself. Europe’s manors could no longer function without a labor supply. As feudalism faded, it was gradually replaced by the early capitalist structures of the Renaissance. Land owners now turned to privatized farming for profit. Laborers began demanding – and were given – better wages and additional liberties. Thus, the slow growth of urbanization began, and with it came the cosmopolitan worldview that was the hallmark of the Renaissance.

Molarity of a given solution is defined as the total number of moles of solute per litre of solution. The molality of a solution is dependent on the changes in physical properties of the system such as pressure and temperature as unlike mass, the volume of the system changes with the change in physical conditions of the system. Molarity is represented by M, which is termed as molar. 

Molarity Formula:

The equation for calculating molarity is the ratio of the moles of solute whose molarity is to be calculated and the volume of solvent used to dissolve the given solute.

M=n/V

Here,

M is the molality of the solution that is to be calculated

n is the number of moles of the solute 

V is the volume of solution given in terms of litres