Electrons within an atom can be assessed according to the shell, subshell, and orbital to which they are assigned. These assessments are based on the quantum mechanical model. Shells are numbered as n=1,2,3,4, etc. and increase in size and energy as they get further away from the nucleus.

      Shells can be subdivided into subshells. The maximum number of subshells is equivalent to the shell number. For example, when n=1 (first shell), only one subshell is possible and when n=2 (second shell), two subshells are possible.

      There are four different types of subshells. These various types of subshells are denoted by the letters s, p, d, and f. Each subshell has a maximum number of electrons which it can hold: s - 2 electrons, p - 6 electrons, d - 10 electrons, and f - 14 electrons. The s subshell is the lowest energy subshell and the f subshell is the highest energy subshell.

     As was mentioned previously, the shell number is equal to the possible number of subshells. Thus, when n=1, the only subshell possible is the 1s subshell. When n=2, two subshells are possible the 2s and 2p. When n=3, three subshells are possible the 3s, 3p, and 3d. This means that in the first shell only two electrons are possible and they would be found in the 1s (2 electrons) subshell. In the second shell, 8 electrons are possible and would be found in the 2s (2 electrons) and the 2p (6 electrons) subshells.

     Each subshell is further divided into orbitals. An orbital is defined as a region of space in which an electron can be found. Only two electrons are possible per orbital. Thus, the s subshell may contain only one orbital and the p subshell may contain three orbitals.

     Each orbital has its own distinct shape. An s orbital found in a s subshell is spherical, p orbitals found in p subshells are two-lobed, and d orbitals found in d subshells are four-lobed. Since d and f orbitals do not play an important role in organic chemistry, they will not be discussed further. 

     Since there are three possible orbitals per p subshell, each orbital adopts its own orientation. The p_x orbital lies along the x axis, the p_y orbital lies along the y axis, and the p_z orbital lies along the z axis.

15 – A

Green Enclave

City

October 13, 2019

The Editor

The Indian Express

Firoz Gandhi Market

City

Subject: The Problem of Severe Water Crisis Looming Large in India

Sir:

I am writing to your esteemed self to draw people and authorities’ attention towards the ever worsening problem of water shortage across the nation. Owing to so many factors water scarcity problem has become quite serious. The water supply in South India, Maharashtra, M.P., Delhi, U.P., etc. has fallen to minimum level. It is feared by 2020 the water tables underground will run dry.  

There is need of changing our attitude towards water conservation. People should not waste water at all. They should use it sagaciously and like a rare commodity. Apart from this the Government should also address the problem at the base level. Proper afforestation around the city, especially along the rivers and canals should be done.  

All the water resources in the country should be interlinked. Flood water-management by channeling it to water-shortage areas should be done. The sea water should be converted into potable water in coastal areas. This expertise can be sought from Israel.  

The Government should also make strict laws to conserve water and environment. People should be involved in water preservation and conservation campaigns. Without people’s participation water scarcity problem can’t be solved. I appeal to you to publish my views in your reputed daily. I also appeal to people and concerned authorities to look into the matter and shoulder their responsibilities in solving the problem. Thanking you.

Yours truly,

Shalini    

In India FPTP system is used in election of MPs and MLAs whereas PR system is used in election of President, vice-president, RS.

FPTP: In FPTP system the candidate who gets votes more than all other candidates is declared as winner. In this system the people vote essentially for a party member. The person elected from the constituency can be held accountable for the progress of the region.

Proportional Representation System: IN PR system the country is either considered as a single constituency or divided into different constituency. If divided into several countries many candidates may be elected from a constituency. Under this system the candidates of a party are elected in proportion of the votes won by them. People vote for a party and not for an individual. Under this system people cannot held anyone accountable for the progress of their area.

India should not shift to PR system. The FPTP system is simple to understand and provides accountability. Since a large population of India is still uneducated introducing a complex system as PR may cause problems for people in exercising their right to vote. For a large country like India PR system may not be feasible.

In a first-past-the-post (FPTP or FPP; sometimes formally called single-member plurality voting or SMP) electoral system, voters cast their vote for a candidate of their choice, and the candidate who receives the most votes wins. FPTP is a plurality voting method, and is primarily used in systems that use single-member electoral divisions. FPTP is used as the primary form of allocating seats for legislative elections in about a third of the world's countries, mostly in the English-speaking world (the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, India, Pakistan, and other countries in the Commonwealth of Nations).

Many countries use FPTP alongside proportional representation, for example, for special constituencies (e.g. for minorities or outlying areas) and/or as part of a mixed-member proportional representation system. It is also used to elect heads of state in Taiwan, Iceland, Mexico, and South Korea.

Countries that primarily use a first-past-the-post voting system for national legislative elections
FPTP can be used for single- and multiple-member electoral divisions. In a single-member election, the candidate with the highest number (but not necessarily a majority) of votes is elected. In a multiple-member election (or multiple-selection ballot), each voter casts (up to) the same number of votes as there are positions to be filled, and those elected are the highest-placed candidates corresponding to that number of positions. For example, if there are three vacancies, then voters cast up to three votes and the three candidates with the greatest number of votes are elected.

• Increased revenues. 
• Decreased competition.
• Longer product lifespan.
• Easier cash-flow management. 
• Better risk management. 
• Benefiting from currency exchange. 
• Access to export financing. 
• Disposal of surplus goods.

Advantages

Reaching new customers

You probably have a good idea of how your business performs in its home country, but who knows how many more consumers and clients you could reach in a new location? The available pool of prospects will expand dramatically, and they may even have an enthusiasm for your products and services that outmatches the customers at home.

Spreading business risk

If your business should unfortunately encounter hard times in one location, continuing to operate in another will relieve some of the pressure. The more countries in which you have a presence, the more the ups and downs of business fortune will become smoothed out and easier to manage.

Accessing new talent

The success of your company may depend as much on the people you work with as the actions and decisions of you personally. Expanding to an international location could give you access to talented, invaluable new employees and business partners who would take your enterprise to the next level.

Amplifying your brand

Expanding your business out from its home country will have the effect of increasing the visibility and therefore brand equity of your name, logo and ethos. You can enjoy a reputation boost from international growth, and your new customers in the target location may perceive your business as having an exotic prestige. You will also have a great opportunity to extend the reach of your intellectual property, trademarks and copyrights to new regions.

Securing foreign investment

Investment firms and individuals are not distributed evenly across the globe, with large concentrations of investment money available in some areas and little in others. Depending on the target country for expansion, you may find that growing your business internationally gives you access to investment capital far beyond that which is available in your original location.

A courier service is a service that allows someone to send a parcel or consignment from one location to another. ... Senders have the option to have their parcels collected by a courier or drop their parcel off at a nearby location to be picked up later by the courier. A courier service is a premium, all-inclusive service which collects and delivers shipments in the shortest possible time frame, while postal services are generally used for transporting letters and parcels which can sometimes take some time to arrive at their final destination.

The NSC is a one-time investment. The investment can start from as low as Rs 100 and there is no maximum limit. However, once you touch the limit under Section 80C (Rs 1 lakh), the investments in NSC do not qualify for a tax deduction. TDS is deducted before being re-invested again in case of bank FD. NSC, in comparison with SBI and IDFC Bank FDs, is offering higher maturity value. ... NSC certificates can be used as collateral to obtain loan. However, a bank tax-saving FD cannot be used for the same as per Bank Term Deposit Scheme Rules.

VARIOUS FORMS OF E-BANKING:
INTERNET BANKING:
Internet Banking helps you manage many banking transactions online via your PC.

AUTOMATED TELLER MACHINES (ATM):
An automated teller machine or automatic teller machine (ATM) is an electronic computerized telecommunications device that allows a financial institution’s customers to directly use a secure method of communication to access their bank accounts, order or make cash withdrawals (or cash advances using a credit card) and check their account balances without the need for a human bank teller.

TELE BANKING:
By dialing the given Telebanking number through a landline or a mobile from anywhere, the customer can access his account and by following the user-friendly menu, entire banking can be done through Interactive Voice Response (IVR) system.

SMART CARD:
A smart card usually contains an embedded 8-bit microprocessor (a kind of computer chip). The microprocessor is under a contact pad on one side of the card. Think of the microprocessor as replacing the usual magnetic stripe present on a credit card or debit card.

The microprocessor on the smart card is there for security. The host computer and card reader actually “talk” to the microprocessor. The microprocessor enforces access to the data on the card.

The chips in these cards are capable of many kinds of transactions.

DEBIT CARD:
Debit cards are also known as check cards. Debit cards look like credit cards or ATM (automated teller machine) cards, but operate like cash or a personal check. Debit cards are different from credit cards. While a credit card is a way to “pay later,” a debit card is a way to “pay now.” When you use a debit card, your money is quickly deducted from your checking or savings account.

E-CHEQUE:
An e-Cheque is the electronic version or representation of paper cheque.

The main difference between Fire Insurance and Life Insurance is, fire insurance covers the losses caused by the properties of the policyholder whereas life insurance covers the losses that happened to the person of the policyholder. Life insurance covers your life. In case of policyholder’s premature demise within the policy term, the insurance company pays the sum assured to the nominee. One of the most essential financial instruments, life insurance helps your family to stay financially independent, square off liabilities taken in the form of loans, maintain the lifestyle provided, and keep essential goals on track.

DTH stands for Direct-to-home television. It is defined as the reception of satellite programmes with a personal dish in an individual home. Only cable operators can receive the satellite programmes which are transferred by them to individual homes. Hence, DTH services are provided by cellular companies. Direct-to-Home (DTH) television is a method of receiving satellite television by means of signals transmitted from direct-broadcast satellites. The Government of India permitted the reception and distribution of satellite television signals in November 2000.

The main features of recurring deposit account are as follows:-

1. The main objective of recurring deposit account is to develop regular savings habit among the public.
2. In India, minimum amount that can be deposited is Rs.10 at regular intervals.
3. The period of deposit is minimum six months and maximum ten years.
4. The rate of interest is higher.
5. No withdrawals are allowed. However, the bank may allow to close the account before the maturity period.
6. The bank provides the loan facility. The loan can be given upto 75% of the amount standing to the credit of the account holder.

Statutory Corporation:

• This type of organization is formed by passing a special act of Parliament. It is an initiative of private enterprises.
• It is completely owned by the state.
• Departmental Undertaking:
• It is a department which works under a minister and ensures high degree of public accountability.
• It is completely owned by government.

Government Company:

• This form of organization gets established under the Indian Companies Act of 1956.
• In this at least 51% of the share is owned by the central government or partly by both; central and states.

1.Active partner: A partner who contributes capital and also actively participates in the management and affairs of the business is called an active partner. He shares the profits and losses of the business and his liability is unlimited.
2.Sleeping partner: A partner who contributes capital but does not participate in the management and affairs of the business is called a sleeping partner. He shares the profits and losses of the business and has unlimited liability.
3.Secret partner : A partner whose association with the firm is not known to the general public is called a secret partner. He also contributes capital, shares profits and losses, participates in the management of the business and has unlimited liability.
4.Nominal partner : A partner who allows the
partnership firm to use his/her name but does not contribute any capital or take part in the management and affairs of the business. He does not share the profits and losses of the firm but he is liable to the creditors for the repayment of the firm’s debts.
5.Partner by estoppel: Partner by estoppel is a partner who, through his/her conduct or behaviour, gives an impression that he/she is a partner of a particular firm. Although such a person neither contributes capital nor participates in the management of the business, in the eyes of the third party he is known as a partner of that firm. Hence, he too is liable for the debts of the firms.
6.Partner by holding out : A person, who is not actually a partner of a firm but knowingly allows himself/herself to be represented as a partner of the firm is called a partner by holding out. Such a person can be held liable for the repayment of debt extended to the firm due to such representation. In order to avoid this liability, such a person should immediately clarify his position to the third party, stating the fact that he is not a partner. Failure in clarifying same would make him liable to the third party for repayment of any debts taken by the partnership firm.

The five multiple objectives of business are as follows:

1. Market standing : Market standing refers to the position of an enterprise in relation to its competitors. A business enterprise must aim at stronger market standing in terms of offering competitive products to its customers and serving them to their satisfaction.
2. Innovation : Innovation is the introduction of new ideas or methods in the way something is done or made. There are two kinds of innovation in every business, i.e.,
   (i) innovation in product or service.
   (ii) innovation in the various skills and activities needed to supply them.
3. Productivity : Productivity is calculated by comparing the value of outputs with the value of inputs. It is used as a measure of efficiency.
4. Physical and financial resources : Any business requires physical resources like plants, machines, offices, etc., and financial resources i.e. funds to be able to produce and supply goods and services to its
   customers.
5. Earning profits : One of the main objectives of business is to earn profits on the capital employed.
   Profitability refers to profit in relation to capital investment. Every business must earn a reasonable profit which is crucial for its survival and growth