A democracy ensures that individuals have certain rights and the government recognises these rights in its constitution. Therefore, there is a list of rights provided and protected by our constitution called 'Bill of Rights'. A bill of rights gives the list of fundamental and very important rights which are important for the life and liberty of an individual. But why fundamental rights are important only to life and liberty? 

Fundamental rights are important to Life because if an individual has no life then there is no point in having a government and doing work to protect his welfare.

And if an individual has no liberty, then whatever the government does for the welfare, the individual will not be able to use it because he does not have freedom to have his goals and aspirations in life. By having freedom; then only individual can move around, talk, build oppurtunities for himself.

Rights and duties go hand in hand. They are closely related. If rights are the claims given to us by others. They are given by us to others.Through rights are help ourselves to develop our personality: while through duties we help others to develop their personalities. We own rights but we owe duties.

Rights are incomplete without duties. Duties are meaningless without rights. Duties are our obligations towards others. Rights are other's obligations towards us. Thus it is difficult to separate rights from duties or duties from rights. In fact they are two sides of the same coin. The existence of one necessitates the existence of the other. The two therefore are interdependent.
 

Parliament

Amendments. Changes to the fundamental rights require a constitutional amendment, which has to be passed by a special majority of both houses of Parliament. This means that an amendment requires the approval of two-thirds of the members present and voting.

In India, like most other democracies in the world, some rights are mentioned in the Constitution. These rights are fundamental to our life and are given a special status. They are called Fundamental Rights. It talks about securing for all its citizens equality, liberty and justice. Fundamental Rights are an important basic feature of the Indian Constitution. These are preserved in the Part III of the Constitution. Importance' of Fundamental Rights: 
(i) Fundamental Rights create a feeling of security amongst the minorities in the country. 
(ii) No democracy can function in the absence of basic rights such as freedom of speech and expression. 
(iii) Fundamental Rights grant the standards of conduct, citizenship, justice and fair play. They act as a check on the government.

Ans. Ranga had decided not to get married at an early age. But one day when he went to the narrator’s house, he stopped at the threshold as he heard Ratna’s singing. He was enchanted by her and kept glancing at her.

When you swallow food, it passes from your mouth down into your throat (pharynx). From there, the food moves down through a long tube (the esophagus) and into your stomach. This journey is made possible by a series of actions from the muscles in these areas. Dysphagia happens when there is a disruption in the swallowing process as food and liquids pass through your mouth, throat, and esophagus. 

The pharynx is also part of the system that brings air into your lungs. When you breathe, air enters your mouth and moves into the pharynx. The air then goes down into your main airway (trachea) and into your lungs. A flap of tissue called the epiglottis sits over the top of the trachea. This flap blocks food and drink from going down into the trachea when you swallow. But in some cases, food or drink can enter the trachea causing aspiration. It may go down as you swallow. Or it may come back up from the stomach. A person with dysphagia is much more likely to aspirate.

Dysphagia is more common in older adults. Stroke is a very common cause of both dysphagia and aspiration. About half of people who have had a stroke also have dysphagia. About half of people with dysphagia have aspiration. About one-third of these people will need treatment for pneumonia at some point.

As a finance manager of the company, I would advice the directors to issue the preference shares as by issuing preference shares, a company is benefited in the following ways.

1. Lifetime retention - A company need is not bound to repay the preference share capital amount during its lifetime.

2. No charge on company's assets - The preference shareholders have no right on the assets of the concerned company. So in this manner, they have no right to claim any amount (by selling-off company's assets) in case the company fails to make dividend payments.

3. No obligation - In case, the company incurs losses, then it is not required to pay dividend to its preference shareholders. 

On the other hand, debentures will not be chosen because of the following demerits of debentures.

1. ​ The legal boundation of a company to pay interest on debentures increases its payment obligations .
2. The borrowing capacity of a company gets limited with further issue of debentures.

following are the two sources of finance that an established company can opt to expand its production capacity-
- Issue of shares- the company can issue share (equity and preference) as per its requirement in order to finance its expansion project. company has to pay an annual dividend on these shares. the decision regarding providing dividend is totally in the hands of management.

- issue of debentures- another source through which a company can finance its project is Debentures, it is th fixed charge liability against which company has to pay interest on regular intervals. debenture may be issued for short term and long term period but practically it is issued for a long term period.

other sources are loan from banks, loans from financial institutions etc
 

Merits are as :
1. Financial institutions provide long-term finance, which are not provided by commercial banks.
2. Obtaining loan from financial institutions increases the goodwill of the borrowing company in the capital market. Consequently, such a company can raise funds easily from other sources as well.

3. Besides providing funds, many of the institutions provide financial, managerial and technical advice and consultancy to business firms.

4. As repayment of loan can be made in easy installments, it does not prove to be much of a burden on the business; and

5. The funds are made available even during the periods of depression, when other sources of finance are not available.

Limitations are :

1. Financial institutions are follows rigid criteria for grant of loans. Too many formalities make the procedure time-consuming and expensive.

2. Certain restrictions such as restriction on dividend payment are imposed on the powers of the borrowing company by the financial institutions.

3. Financial institutions may have their nominees on the Board of Director’s of the borrowing company there by restricting the powers of the company.

Merits are as :

1. Financial institutions provide long-term finance, which are not provided by commercial banks.

2. Obtaining loan from financial institutions increases the goodwill of the borrowing company in the capital market. Consequently, such a company can raise funds easily from other sources as well.

3. Besides providing funds, many of the institutions provide financial, managerial and technical advice and consultancy to business firms.

4. As repayment of loan can be made in easy installments, it does not prove to be much of a burden on the business; and

5. The funds are made available even during the periods of depression, when other sources of finance are not available.

Limitations are :

1. Financial institutions are follows rigid criteria for grant of loans. Too many formalities make the procedure time-consuming and expensive.

2. Certain restrictions such as restriction on dividend payment are imposed on the powers of the borrowing company by the financial institutions.

3. Financial institutions may have their nominees on the Board of Director’s of the borrowing company there by restricting the powers of the company.

Retained Profits: For any company, the amount of earnings retained within the business has a direct impact on the amount of dividends. Profit re-invested as retained earnings is profit that could have been paid as a dividend. The management of many companies believes that retained earnings are funds which do not cost anything, although this is not true. However, it is true that the use of retained earnings as a source of funds does not lead to a payment of cash. The dividend policy of the company is in practice determined by the directors. From their standpoint, retained earnings are an attractive source of finance because investment projects can be undertaken without involving either the shareholders or any outsiders. The use of retained earnings as opposed to new shares or debentures avoids issue costs. The use of retained earnings avoids the possibility of a change in control resulting from an issue of new shares. Another factor that may be of importance is the financial and taxation position of the company’s shareholders. For example, because of taxation considerations, they would rather make a capital profit (which will only be taxed when shares are sold) than receive current income, and then finance through retained earnings would be preferred to other methods.

Advantages of Retained Earnings

• The management of many companies believe that retained earnings are funds which do not cost anything, although this is not true. However, it is true that the use of retained earnings as a source of funds does not lead to a payment of cash.
• The dividend policy of the company is in practice determined by the directors. From their standpoint, retained earnings are an attractive source of finance because investment projects can be undertaken without involving either the shareholders or any outsiders.
• The use of retained earnings as opposed to new shares or debentures avoids issue costs. The use of retained earnings avoids the possibility of a change in control resulting from an issue of new shares.
• Another factor that may be of importance is the financial and taxation position of the company’s shareholders. If, for example, because of taxation considerations, they would rather make a capital profit (which will only be taxed when shares are sold) than receive current income, then finance through retained earnings would be preferred to other methods.

Disadvantages of Retained Earnings

• A company must restrict its self-financing through retained profits because shareholders should be paid a reasonable dividend, in line with realistic expectations, even if the directors would rather keep the funds for re-investing.
• At the same time, a company that is looking for extra funds will not be expected by investors (such as banks) to pay generous dividends, nor over-generous salaries to owner-directors.
• Scope of retained earnings is limited by amount of profits. A loss incurring firm has no source called retained earnings.

Retained Profits: For any company, the amount of earnings retained within the business has a direct impact on the amount of dividends. Profit re-invested as retained earnings is profit that could have been paid as a dividend. The management of many companies believes that retained earnings are funds which do not cost anything, although this is not true. However, it is true that the use of retained earnings as a source of funds does not lead to a payment of cash. The dividend policy of the company is in practice determined by the directors. From their standpoint, retained earnings are an attractive source of finance because investment projects can be undertaken without involving either the shareholders or any outsiders. The use of retained earnings as opposed to new shares or debentures avoids issue costs. The use of retained earnings avoids the possibility of a change in control resulting from an issue of new shares. Another factor that may be of importance is the financial and taxation position of the company’s shareholders. For example, because of taxation considerations, they would rather make a capital profit (which will only be taxed when shares are sold) than receive current income, and then finance through retained earnings would be preferred to other methods.

Advantages of Retained Earnings

• The management of many companies believe that retained earnings are funds which do not cost anything, although this is not true. However, it is true that the use of retained earnings as a source of funds does not lead to a payment of cash.
• The dividend policy of the company is in practice determined by the directors. From their standpoint, retained earnings are an attractive source of finance because investment projects can be undertaken without involving either the shareholders or any outsiders.
• The use of retained earnings as opposed to new shares or debentures avoids issue costs. The use of retained earnings avoids the possibility of a change in control resulting from an issue of new shares.

• Another factor that may be of importance is the financial and taxation position of the company’s shareholders. If, for example, because of taxation considerations, they would rather make a capital profit (which will only be taxed when shares are sold) than receive current income, then finance through retained earnings would be preferred to other methods.

Disadvantages of Retained Earnings

• A company must restrict its self-financing through retained profits because shareholders should be paid a reasonable dividend, in line with realistic expectations, even if the directors would rather keep the funds for re-investing.
• At the same time, a company that is looking for extra funds will not be expected by investors (such as banks) to pay generous dividends, nor over-generous salaries to owner-directors.
• Scope of retained earnings is limited by amount of profits. A loss incurring firm has no source called retained earnings.

A n s w e r:

Hominoids were the subgroup of primates.
They came into existence about 24 mya.
Characteris t i c s

They had smaller brain.
They were unable to walk erect.

A n s w e r: Various sources of long term funds include are as follows: Equity shares, preference shares, debentures, retained earnings, loans from financial institutions, loans from commercial banks etc.

उष्णकटिबंधीय आर्द्र जलवायु और समुद्री पश्चिमी तटीय जलवायु की जलवायुओं में तापांतर बहुत कम होता है।