• Yam:  Genghis Khan had already fashioned a rapid courier system called yam that connected the distant areas of his regime.
• Qubcur tax: For the maintenance of this communication systemthe Mongol nomads contributed a tenth of their herd – either horses or livestock – as provisions. This was called the qubcur tax, a levy that the nomads paid willingly for the multiple benefits that it brought.
• Territory linking: Once the campaigns had settled, Europe and China were territorially linked with Mongolia. Commerce and travel along the Silk Route reached its peak under the Mongols but, the trade route extended up to Mongolia.
• Baj tax:  Communication and ease of travel was vital to retain the coherence of the Mongol regime and travellers were given a pass for safe conduct. Traders paid the baj tax for the same purpose, all acknowledging thereby the authority of the Mongol Khan.

Magnus Effect

• Dynamic lift by virtue of spinning is known as Magnus effect.
• Magnus effect is a special name given to dynamic lift by virtue of spinning.
• Example:-Spinning of a ball.
  • Case1:-When the ball is not spinning.
    • The ball moves in the air it does not spin, the velocity of the ball above and below the ball is same.
    • As a result there is no pressure difference.(ΔP= 0).
    • Therefore there is no dynamic lift.

Anterior pituitary

• Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Luteinising hormone (LH)
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Prolactin (PRL)
• Growth hormone (GH)
• Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)

Posterior pituitary

• Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)
• Oxytocin

Chloroplast, peroxisome and mitochondria are three cellular organelles involved in photorespiration.
Various steps of photorespiratory pathway:
(a) In presence of high Oz, RuBP carboxylase acts as oxygenase and results in formation of 3PGA (Phosphoglyeric acid) and 2-phosphoglycolate, 2-phosphoglycolate loses PO4 group to make glycolate.
(b) Synthesized glycolate in chloroplast enters into peroxisomes.

© The glycolate is oxidised into glyoxylate and H2O2 by oxidase enzyme.
(d) Glyoxylate is changed into glycine (amino acid) by glutamate glyoxylate transaminase (enzyme).
(e) Two molecules of glycine form serine and one mol. of CO2 in mitochondria but no ATP and NADPH are formed.
(f) Finally serine passes into mitochondria and is changed into carbohydrate (3 carbon) and Phosphoglycolate (2 carbon).
(g) Soon glycolate is formed of phosphoglycolate. In peroxisomes, glycolate soon changes into glycine and glycine into serine and CO2, without production of assimilatory powers (ATP and NADPH2).

• Location: Cave No.26, Ajanta Caves.
• The theme of this image has been portrayed as paintings in the caves but this is the only sculpture.
• Image of Buddha in the centre surrounded by Mara’s army and his daughter.
• Buddha is in padmasana.
• Mara represents desire here. This representation is the personification of the tumult of mind that the Buddha underwent at the time of his enlightenment.
• Buddha’s right hand is shown towards the earth symbolising his generosity.
• The panel contains many highly voluminous images.

Mitochondria are organs of special importance. These organelles are absolute requirements to sustain the physiological activities of the cells.
1. They are typically sausage shaped or cylindrical shaped.
2. Each mitochondrion is a double membrane - bound structure with the outer membrane and the inner membrane dividing its lumen distinctly into two compartments, I.e., the outer compartment (perimitochindrial space) and the inner compartment matrix).
3. They are present in almost all the cells of the body except in Red Blood Cells.
4. They are freely floating in the cytoplasm and and stay in the regions of high energy requirement.
5. Mitochondria are self replicable i.e. they can multiply on their own without the requirement of cell to divide.
This characteristic feature helps replacement of old, worn out and damaged mitochondria with new and healthy mitochondria.
6. Mitochondria have their own genetic material as single stranded DNA.
7. The mitochondria have many enzyme complex which in series help in formation of energy i.e. adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP).

This is a muscle that is found only in the heart. The rhythmic contractions of this muscle help in the pumping of blood through the blood vessels to various parts of the body. The brain controls this muscle and is an involuntary muscle. The cells of this muscle tissue are branched and cylindrical with a single nucleus and striations present.
The cells of the cardiac muscle tissue are shorter than the skeletal muscle tissue. There are intercalated disks of overlapping cell membrane between the cardiac muscle cells. This helps the tissue to get locked tightly.

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

• Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that when two systems are in thermal equilibrium through a third system separately then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other also.
  • Foreg: - Consider two systems A and B which are separated by an adiabatic wall. Heat flow happens between systems A and C, and between B and C, due to which all 3 systems attain thermal equilibrium.

First Law of Thermodynamics

• The First law of thermodynamics is same as law of conservation of energy.
• According to law of energy conservation: - Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, only transformed to other forms.
• According to first law of thermodynamics:- The change in the internal energy of a closed system is equal to the amount of heat supplied to the system, minus the amount of work done by the system on its surroundings.
• Examples:- Consider a ball falling from the roof of the building when at top of the building the ball has only potential energy and when it starts falling potential energy decreases and kinetic energy starts increasing. At the ground it has only kinetic energy.

Second law of Thermodynamics

There are 2 statements of second law of thermodynamics given by two scientists:

• Kelvin-Planck ∫Statement: - No process is possible whose result is the absorption of heat from a reservoir and the complete conversion of the heat into work.
• Clausius statement: - No process is possible whose result is the transfer of heat from a colder object to a hotter object.

Explanation of Kelvin-Planck Statement: It is always impossible that the total amount of heat which is supplied to system will get converted to work, and there will always be loss of heat. Complete conversion of heat into work is not possible.

Explanation of Clausius statement: - Transfer of heat from colder body to hotter body won’t take place until some external work is done on the system.