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There are different proteins in the membrane, which play a major role in both active as well as passive transport. Active transport is carried out by membrane – protein. In protein pumps energy is used to carry substances across the cell membrane. These pumps can transport substances from a low concentration to a high concentration (‘uphill’ transport). Transport rate reaches a maximum when all the protein transporters are being used or are saturated. The carrier protein is very specific in what it carries across the membrane. These proteins are sensitive to inhibitors that react with protein side chains
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Actin monomers are called globular actin or G-actin. They are fairly globe-shaped in structure. At the right concentration of monomers, they can polymerize head to tail to form filamentous actin or F-actin. F-actin threads associate with each other in a thin double-helical structure. Because the G-actin monomers are arranged in the same orientation, actin filaments have two distinct ends. The ends are called plus (+) and minus (-). The plus end grows about 5-10 times faster than the minus end. The plus and minus ends are also important because motor proteins such as myosin move along the actin filament only in one direction. This is important in muscle contraction.
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Meghna Thapar 5 years, 10 months ago
The citric acid cycle (CAC) – also known as the TCA cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle) or the Krebs cycle is a series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to release stored energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, into adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and carbon dioxide.
The product of this reaction, acetyl-CoA, is the starting point for the citric acid cycle. Acetyl-CoA may also be obtained from the oxidation of fatty acids. Below is a schematic outline of the cycle:
i. The citric acid cycle begins with the transfer of a two-carbon acetyl group from acetyl-CoA to the four-carbon acceptor compound (oxaloacetate) to form a six-carbon compound (citrate).
ii. The citrate then goes through a series of chemical transformations, losing two carboxyl groups as CO2. The carbons lost as CO2 originate from oxaloacetate. The carbons donated by acetyl-CoA become part of the oxaloacetate carbon backbone after the first turn of the citric acid cycle.
iii. Most of the energy made available by the oxidative steps of the cycle is transferred as energy-rich electrons to NAD+, forming NADH. For each acetyl group that enters the citric acid cycle, three molecules of NADH are produced. The citric acid cycle includes a series of oxidation reduction reaction in mitochondria .
iv. In addition, electrons from the succinate oxidation step are transferred first to the FAD cofactor of succinate dehydrogenase, reducing it to FADH2, and eventually to ubiquinone (Q) in the mitochondrial membrane, reducing it to ubiquinol (QH2) which is a substrate of the electron transfer chain at the level of Complex III.
v. For every NADH and FADH2 that are produced in the citric acid cycle, 2.5 and 1.5 ATP molecules are generated in oxidative phosphorylation, respectively. At the end of each cycle, the four-carbon oxaloacetate has been regenerated, and the cycle continues.
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Harish Kumar 5 years, 10 months ago
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