P&L account is used to determine Net Profit or Net Loss of an organization for a given accounting period. P&L appropriation account is used for allocation and distribution of Net Profit among partners, reserves and dividends. P&L account is prepared by all types of businesses.

Diagram of a badminton court 

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i. Low Economic Development 

Throughout the British rule, Indian economy experienced very low level of economic development. As per some researches, Indian economy grew at even less than two percent during 1900-50. The reason for such a low level of development was that the British government was more concerned with the promotion of economic interests of their home country. Consequently, the colonial rule transformed India’s agriculture sector to a mere supplier of raw materials for the British industries. This not only affected the production of the agricultural sector but also ruined the small manufacturing units like handicrafts and cotton industries. These manufacturing units faced a stiff competition from the British machine made textiles and handlooms.

ii. Backwardness of Indian Agriculture

Under the colonial rule, India was basically an agrarian economy employing nearly 85% of its population. Nevertheless, the growth of the agriculture sector was meager. This was due to the prevalence of various systems of Land Settlement, particularly Zamindari system. Under this system, the zamindars (owners of land) were required to pay very high revenue (lagaan) to the British government, which they used to collect from the peasants (landless labourers, who were actually cultivating). The zamindars were mainly concerned with extracting high revenues from the peasants but never took any steps to improve the productivity of the land. Moreover, in order to feed British industries with cheap raw materials, the Indian peasants were forced to grow cash crops (such as, indigo, cotton, etc.) instead of food crops (such as, rice and wheat). This commercialisation of agriculture not only increased the burden of high revenues on the poor peasants but also led India to face shortage of food grains. Therefore, Indian agriculture remained backward and primitive.

somerism in Coordination Compounds

Isomerism is the phenomenon in which compounds have same molecular formula but different structures and these different structures are called as isomers. Isomers are those that have different physical and chemical properties.

There are two types of isomers:

• Structural isomerism
• Stereoisomerism

Structural isomerism: Different types are as follows:-

• ionization isomerism
• Hydrate isomerism
• Coordination isomerism
• Linkage isomerism

Stereoisomerism: Different types are as follows:-

• geometrical isomerism
• Optical isomerism

Structural isomerism:The compounds have same molecular phenomenon but different structures

• Ionization isomerism: they differ in productions of ions in aqueous solution

                For example:à [CoBr(NH₃)₅]SO₄  and   [Co (NH₃)₅SO₄  ]Br are ionization isomers        when dissolved in water

            [CoBr(NH₃)₅]SO₄  à[CoBr(NH₃)₅]²⁺ + SO₄^2-

            [Co (NH₃)₅SO₄  ]Bràà[CoSO₄ (NH₃)₅]²⁺ + Br^-

• Hydrate or solvate isomerism: in this they differ in number of molecules of water of crystallization

For example: [Cr(H₂O)₆]Cl₃ and [Cr(H₂O)₅Cl]Cl₂H₂Oare hydrate isomers

When dissolved in water

[Cr(H₂O)₆]Cl₃à[Cr(H₂O)₆] + 3Cl^- (no water molecule )

[Cr(H₂O)₅Cl]Cl₂H₂Oà[Cr(H₂O)₅Cl]+2Cl+H₂O(will give one water molecule )

• Coordination isomerism: they differ in coordination entities

For example:[Co(NH₃)₆]  [Cr(CN)₆] and :[Co(CN)₆]  [Cr(NH₃)₆] are coordination isomers

• Linkage isomerism: it is in case of ambidentate ligands and in this they differ in the point of attachment.

For example, in case of CN(cyano) and in case of NC (isocyano)

• Stereoisomerism: in these compounds have same molecular formula but differ in spatial arrangements of ligands.

It is of two types:

• Geometrical isomerism
• Optical isomerism

Geometrical isomerism: it is due to difference in the geometrical arrangements of ligands around central metal atom.

it is of further two types :

• Cis
• Trans

Cis : when the similar ligands are on adjacent position

Trans : when the similar ligands are on opposite positions

Cis and trans isomers are shown below (this is shown by compounds with coordination number 4 and 6

Example: [Pt (NH₃)₄Cl₂]

1. Methods of Calculating National Income

(i) Income method
(ii) Expenditure method
(iii) Product method or value added method or output method

2. Income Method By this method, the total sum of the factor payments received during a given period is estimated to obtain the value of Domestic Income. Depending on the way, the income is earned.
It can be classified into following components:
(i) Compensation of employees
(ii) Operating surplus (rent, profit and interest)
(iii) Mixed income of self-employed

3. Computation of National Income (By Income Method)

4. Expenditure Method By this method, the total sum of expenditures on the purchase of final goods and services produced during an accounting year within an economy is estimated to obtain the value of domestic income.

5. Final Expenditure It is the expenditure on the purchase of final goods and services during an accounting year. It is broadly classified into four categories:
(i) Private final consumption expenditure.
(ii) Government final consumption expenditure.
(iii) Investment expenditure or gross domestic capital formation.
(iv) Net exports, i.e. difference between exports and imports during an accounting year.

7. Computation of National Income (By Expenditure Method)

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6. Value Added Method/Product Method/Output Method By this method, the total value of all the final goods and services produced in an economy during a given time period are estimated to obtain the value of domestic income.

10. Computation of National Income (By Value Added Method)

Circular Flow of Income in a Two-sector Economy.

Let us start with a simplified model involving two sectors, namely, household sector and firm sector, assuming that there is no Govt. We further assume that the economy is a closed one having no exports or imports. Similarly there is no saving by the households, who spend all what they earn; and no investment by the firms. Such an economy has two types of markets — Product market and Factor market. Under these presumptions the firm sector hires factor services from households, who are owners of factors of production (land, labour, capital and enterprise), for producing goods and services and pays them remuneration (or compensation) in the form of money for rendering the productive services. For the factors of production, these are factor incomes known as rent, wages, interest and profit which have been generated in the production process. Thus money income flows from firm sector to the households. With this money the households purchase from the firms, manufactured goods and services to satisfy their wants with the result, the same money flows back from households to the firm sector. Thus entire income of economy comes back to firms in the form of sales revenue. Clearly one man's (or sector's) expenditure is other man's (or sector's) income. 

 National Income refers to net money value of all the final goods and services produced by the normal residents of a country during an accounting year.

Solid: Solid is a state of matter in which the constituting particles are arranged very closely.The constituent particles can be atoms, molecules or ions.

Properties of solids:

1. They have definite mass, volume and shape.
2. They are compressible and rigid.
3. Intermolecular distances are very short and hence the intermolecular forces are strong.
4. Their constituent particles have fixed position. sand can only oscillate about their mean positions.

M. Hamel was very disturbed because it was going to be the last class of his on French. French was his mother-tongue and France his motherland. He loved his country a great deal. However, when Franz could answer the chapter, he rebukes everyone for not spending enough time in learning the language. He blames the parents for being reluctant in sending their children to schools. The parents instead of sending the children to school, preferred sending them to the farm for work and some more money. M. Hamel also blames himself. He apologizes for sending the students to water his flower plants during the class hours, and also giving a leave to his students for going out for fishing.

M. Hamel and the villagers were exceedingly regretful for having neglected the learning of the French language.  M Hamel blamed the inhabitants of Alsace and Lorraine for their lackadaisical attitude to learning French. He even blamed himself for not teaching the French language seriously, as he gave holidays to his students when he wanted to enjoy leisure activities such as fishing and gardening.

Both M. Hamel and the villagers were proud of their mother tongue also. According to the teacher, the French language is the most beautiful, the clearest and the most logical language in the world. He appealed to his countrymen to guard it and never forget it. The villagers loved their mother tongue also; this was the reason almost all of them had come to attend the last lesson of their beloved teacher.

A) If the scheduled time and expenditure for the conduct of the tournament is insufficient as per the no. of participating teams.

B) If the no. of participating is more in proportion to the scheduled time and expenditure.

C) If the no. Of official is insufficient.

Circular Flow of Income: The circular flow means the unending flows of production of goods and services, income and expenditure in an economy. It shows the redistribution of income in a circular manner between production unit and households.