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Physical Properties of Alcohol

1. The Boiling Point of Alcohols - Alcohols generally have higher boiling points in comparison to other hydrocarbons having equal molecular masses. This is due to the presence of intermolecular hydrogen bonding between hydroxyl groups of alcohol molecules. In general, the boiling point of alcohols increases with an increase in the number of carbon atoms in the aliphatic carbon chain. On the other hand, the boiling point decreases with an increase in branching in aliphatic carbon chains the Van der Waals forces decreases with a decrease in surface area. Thus primary alcohols have a higher boiling point.

2. Solubility of Alcohols - The solubility of alcohol in water is governed by the hydroxyl group present. The hydroxyl group in alcohol is involved in the formation of intermolecular hydrogen bonding. Thus, hydrogen bonds are formed between water and alcohol molecules which make alcohol soluble in water. However, the alkyl group attached to the hydroxyl group is hydrophobic in nature. Thus, the solubility of alcohol decreases with the increase in the size of the alkyl group.

3. The Acidity of Alcohols - Alcohols react with active metals such as sodium, potassium etc. to form the corresponding alkoxide. These reactions of alcohols indicate their acidic nature. The acidic nature of alcohol is due to the polarity of –OH bond. The acidity of alcohols decreases when an electron-donating group is attached to the hydroxyl group as it increases the electron density on the oxygen atom. Thus, primary alcohols are generally more acidic than secondary and tertiary alcohols. Due to the presence of unshared electrons on the oxygen atom, alcohols act as Bronsted bases too.

Chemical Properties of Alcohols

Alcohols exhibit a wide range of spontaneous chemical reactions due to the cleavage of the C-O bond and O-H bond. Some prominent chemical reactions of alcohols are:

1. Oxidation of Alcohol

• Alcohols undergo oxidation in the presence of an oxidizing agent to produce aldehydes and ketones which upon further oxidation give carboxylic acids.
  
  Alcohols: Physical and Chemical Properties

2. Dehydration of Alcohol

• Upon treatment with protic acids, alcohols undergo dehydration (removal of a molecule of water) to form alkenes. Dehydration of alcohol
  

There is a common saying that war is never good, peace is never bad. But if we look back into the history of mankind, it will be cleared that there have been wars since prehistoric ages. Although attempts have been made to abolish it, success has not been achieved so far. Thus, eternal peace seems to be beyond our reach. There are people who justify wars and say that it is necessary because it is the law of nature.

They highlight their point by placing Charles Darwin at their front. It was he who established the principle of survival of the fittest. He told that there is a constant struggle for surrival in all nature, both animate and inanimate. In this struggle only those will succeed who are the fittest. Thus, war is held necessary without which there will be any development of humanity.

But such people forget that war always brings destruction on mass scale. They forget Mahatma Gandhi’s teaching of non-violence, following which he freed his motherland from the sackles of slavery. They forget that if Gandhi could oust the powerful Britishers by dint of non violence, why not others follow the same foot print.

Wars are necessary evils and their horrors are so many and of such magnitude that they cannot be described in words. We must not forget the horrors of the two world wars. In there wars, these was mass-killing and destruction of property. Thousands were made widows and orphans. War brings hatred and spreads falsehood. People become selfish and brutal. As a result humanity and morality suffers.

War is the enemy of all humanity and human civilisation. Nothing good can be achieved out of it. Hence, it can never be glorified in any form. It not only hampers the development the nation but also uproots social cohesiveness. It slows down the pace of progress of mankind.

Wars are not the solution of the problems. Instead they generate problems and create hatred among nations. War can decide one issue but gives birth too many. Hiroshima and Nagasaki are the greatest horrible faces of the consequence of wars. Even after 60 years people are suffering from the miseries of war. Whatever be the cause of war, it always results in destruction of life and property at large.

One obnoxious face of modern warfare is terrorism which targets the strongest of the strong and causes dangers beyond control of anyone. Terrorists do not discriminate between races, religion, and culture. They target only the humanity as a whole. Even the world’s super power, the USA remained helpless when its prestigious twin towers of the World Trade Centre were attacked on Sept. 11, 2001 with a well planned, well-co- ordinated and most massive suicide terrorist step. Indian Parliament was also attacked.

These terrorists did not leave the temples like Akshardham in Gujarat. These terrorist attacks are nothing but the misguided zeal of a few derailed members of our society. They work under some provocations which have no goals.

On the whole, war has always been the greatest blot on humanity. It was created by man himself but now it is beyond control of all human forces. Now it requires retrospection for the whole of human race to think over it for the sake of humanity, otherwise nothing will remain neither war nor humanity.

The factors responsible for the imbalance in the *** ratio in different parts of the world are discussed below: (i)In the developing countries infant mortality is higher among males than females. (ii)In developed countries male mortality is higher than females. (iii)Migration of males or females also affects *** ratio.

Cleistogamy is a type of automatic self-pollination of certain plants that can propagate by using non-opening, self-pollinating flowers. Especially well known in peanuts, peas, and pansy this behavior is most widespread in the grass family. However, the largest genus of cleistogamous plants is Viola.
Cleistogamy is self-pollination. It is well known in plants like peanuts, beans, and beans. The advantage is no pollinator is required as it can propagate by using non-opening, self-pollinating flowers. The absence of variation is the biggest disadvantage.

In the sixteenth century, the Mughal ruler Humayun brought artists from Persia, who specialized in miniature painting.

The succeeding Mughal Emperor, Akbar built an atelier for them to promote the rich art form.

These artists, on their part, trained Indian artists who produced paintings in a new distinctive style, inspired by the royal and romantic lives of the Mughals.

The particular miniature produced by Indian artists in their own style is known as Rajput or Rajasthani miniature.

This predilection for roman and fantasy is reflected in their choice of subject matter for painting.

During this time, several schools of painting evolved, such as Mewar (Udaipur), Bundi, Kotah, Marwar (Jodhpur), Bikaner, Jaipur, and Kishangarh.

These paintings are done with utmost care and in minute details, with strong lines and bold colours set in harmonious patterns.

The miniature artists use paper, ivory panels, wooden tablets, leather, marble, cloth and walls for their paintings.

Indian artists employed multiple perspectives unlike their European counterparts in their paintings.

The colours are made from minerals and vegetables, precious stones, as well as pure silver and gold.

The preparing and mixing of colour is an elaborate process.

It takes weeks, sometimes months, to get the desired results.

The brushes are required to be very fine, and to get high-quality results, brushes even to this very day are made from hair of squirrels.

Traditionally, the paintings are aristocratic, individualistic and strong in portraiture, where the plush court scenes and hunting expedition of royalty are depicted.

Flowers and animals are also the recurrent images in the paintings.

The Kishangarh province in Rajasthan is known for its Bani Thani paintings.

It is a totally different style with highly exaggerated features like long necks, large, almond shaped eyes, and long fingers.

This style of painting essentially depicts Radha and Krishna as divine lovers, and beautifully portrays their mystical love.

Kishangarh miniature painting reached a peak in the eighteenth century, during the rule of Raja Sawant Singh, who fell in love with a slave girl, Bani Thani and commanded his artists to portray himself and her as Krishna and Radha.

Other themes of Bani Thani paintings include portraits, court scenes, dancing, hunting, music parties, nauka vihar (lovers travelling in a boat), Krishna Lila, Bhagavata Purana and various other festivals like Holi, Diwali, Durga puja, and Dussehra.

Thi ssyle of Rajasthani school is characterised by primitive vigour, bold outlines and brilliant colours set into harmonious patterns.

However, with the passage of time, the natural colours have been replaced by poster colours.

The schools of miniature have also been commercialized, and the artists mostly replicate the work produced by the old painters.

Third Level Summary – It is a story about a 31-year-old man name, Charlie. Besides, this is a psychological story that refers to the subway at the grand central railway station which takes passengers to Galesburg. In addition, this subway becomes the interconnection between the narrator’s harsh reality and fantasy. Moreover, the third level was a way of escape for Charley. As life in the modern world is full of uncertainties worries and stress, it takes Charley to a different world that his friend also calls, “a walking dream wish fulfilment.” Further, the story is about Charley’s tendency to escape from the world. Most importantly, the third level starts because of Sam’s letter written on 18th July 1984. This story shows the connection between time and space.

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Epigraphy is the study of inscriptions, or epigraphs, as writing; it is the science of identifying graphemes, clarifying their meanings, classifying their uses according to dates and cultural contexts, and drawing conclusions about the writing and the writers.