Cleavage may be total (holoblastic) or partial (meroblastic). In eggs with no yolk or only a moderate amount of yolk, cytokinesis completely divides the cell and cleavage is holoblastic. Here, cleavage furrows are formed all the way through the zygote. This form of cleavage occurs in mammals such as humans. In embryology, cleavage is the division of cells in the early embryo. The zygotes of many species undergo rapid cell cycles with no significant overall growth, producing a cluster of cells the same size as the original zygote.

The Magadha Empire was the most powerful Kingdom in Ancient India. It had powerful kings like Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Dhana Nanda, Chandragupta Maurya, etc.
This rise of Magadha Imperialism is unique in Indian history. The political history of India from the earliest times till the present day is an endless story of struggle between the forces of concentration and decentralization.
In the sixth century B.C., India obtainable the chronic symptom of disintegration. The Aryan India in the North was divided into, sixteen countless kingdoms and a number of republican, autonomous states.
Out of the mix of political atoms, four empires viz., Avanti, Vatsa, Kosala and Magadha, Magadha Empire rose into prominence by aggrandizing upon other weaker states. They entered into a four-power battle for imperial reign which ended in the ultimate victory of Magadha Kingdom over them. It is the first successful attempt for grand and dynastic unification of India in the period of recorded history.
One of the main factors behind the rise of Magadhan Control was her economic solvency and growing prosperity. Magadha had a vast population which could be employed in agriculture, mining and for manning her army. The Sudras and the non-Aryans could be employed in clearing up the forest and reclaim surplus land for undeveloped. The surplus populace could easily live on the yield of the surplus land. The Magadhan lands were very fertile due to its location between the Ganges and the Son. In the 4th Century B.C. that the Magadhan lands yielded multiple crops round the year. People of Magadhan Empire became prosperous due to fertility of the land and the government became automatically rich and powerful.

The sale or purchase of government securities by the Central Bank in open market is termed as open market operations.
To reduce credit, the government securities are sold by the Central Bank. It reduces the supply of money in the hands of commercial banks and common public. On the other hand, to increase the credit, the Central Bank purchases the securities from public which releases money in the market. In this way, the Central Bank uses open market operations as a method of credit control.

Main means of consumer protection are as under 
1. Self Regulation by Business: Every firm insists to have a strong consumer base which means that more and still more people should buy their products. This is possible only when the consumers are fully satisfied with the products of the firm. Many firms have set up their customer service and grievance cells to redress the problems and grievances of their consumers.
2 Business Associations: Business associations prepare a code of conduct for businessmen It is laid down in the code of conduct as to how businessmen are expected to behave with the consumers. For example, the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) and the Confederation of Indian Industries (CII) have proposed their code of conduct which governs the attitude of their members towards consumers.
3. Consumer Awareness: As an important means of consumer protection, consumer should protect himself. He should be alert in the matter of his rights. Alert consumer alone can demand his rights from the sellers. Thus, the consumer himself must know his rights and raise voice against unfair practices of the sellers.
4 Consumer Organisations: Consumer organizations play an important role in educating consumers about their rights and providing protection to them. These organizations can force business firms to avoid malpractices and exploitation of consumers.
5. Government: Interests of the consumers are protected by the government by enacting various legislations. Consumer Protection Act 1986 is an important legislation by the government to provide protection to the affected consumer. This Act provides for a three tier machinery.

The central bank in a developing country aims at the promotion and maintenance of a rising level of production, employment and real income in the country. The central banks in the majority of underdeveloped countries have been given wide powers to promote the growth of such economies. They, therefore, perform the following functions towards this end.

Principles of Management

Principles of management are broad and general guidelines for managerial decision making and behavior (i.e. they guide the practice of management).

Nature of Principles of Management

The nature of principles of management can be described in the following points:

1. Universal applicability i.e. they can be applied in all types of organizations, business as well as non-business, small as well as large enterprises.

2. General Guidelines: They are general guidelines to action and decision making however they do not provide readymade solutions as the business environment is ever changing or dynamic.

3. Formed by practice and experimentation: They are developed after thorough research work on the basis of experiences of managers.

4. Flexible: Which can be adapted and modified by the practicing managers as per the demands of the situations as they are man-made principles.

5. Mainly Behavioural: Since the principles aim at influencing complex human behaviour they are behavioural in nature.

6. Cause and Effect relationship: They intend to establish relationship between cause & effect so that they can be used in similar situations.

7. Contingent: Their applicability depends upon the prevailing situation at a particular point of time. According to Terry, “Management principles are ‘capsules’ of selected management wisdom to be used carefully and discretely”.

(i) In exchange process, the seller (producer) receives the same amount which the buyer (consumer) spends.
(ii) Goods and services flow in one direction and the money payment to acquire them flow in the return direction giving rise to a circular flow.

The main causes of India’s agricultural stagnation during the colonial period were :
(i) Land Revenue System—According to zamindari system, the zamindars were j recognised as permanent owners of the land", j The profit accruing out of the agriculture sector i went to the zamindars instead of cultivators. However, both zamindars and colonial government did nothing to improve the condition of agriculture. Zamindars were to pay a fixed sum to the government as land revenue and they were absolutely free to extract as much from the tillers of the soil as they could.
(ii) Lacking Resources—Alongwith the land settlement system, low levels of technology, lack of irrigation facilities and negligible use of fertilisers, all added upto the bad condition of the farmers and contributed to the dismal level of agricultural productivity. Despite of some proposes made in irrigation India’s agriculture starved of investment in tracing flood control, drainage and disalimination of soil.
(iii) Commercialisation of Agriculture—Due to commercialisation of agriculture, there were, some evidences of a relatively higher yield of cash crops in certain areas of the country. But this could not help in improving the conditions of Indian farmers. Instead of producing food crops, now they were producing cash crops, which were ultimately being used by British Industries

The demand for taxes by the kings had considerably increased during the period 600 BCE to 600 A.D. To fulfil this demand for more taxes, the farmers started finding all new means to increase the production of their crops. Consequently many changes took place in the means and methods of agriculture:
(i) Prevalence of Ploughs: One method that helped increasing the production was the popularity of plough. The use of a plough had started in the 6th century BCE in the valleys of Ganga and kaveri. The plough with an iron tip was used in areas which had an ample rainfall. It was used in fertile land. It resulted in increasing the production of paddy. No doubt the farmers had to work a lot to achieve this target.
(ii) Use of Spade: Though plough helped in increasing the production yet its use was limited to only some areas. In Punjab and Rajasthan, which has less rainfall, the plough was used in the early period of the 20th century. Those farmers who lived in the north-east and mid-mountainous regions, used spade to dig fields. The spade was quite useful in such areas.
(iii) Irrigation: Another method to increase the production was irrigation. For this purpose, the wells, the tanks and the canals were used. These were developed by the people individually. At some places, the farmers also joined hands and worked collectively to develop these means of irrigation. However the kings and other dominating elite people developed wells, ponds and canals individually for irrigation of land.
Impact of new Methods of Agriculture: The production in the fields increased considerably because of these modern techniques but many differences also emerged among the people because of these new methods. In Buddhist stories, we find a mention of labourers, small farmers and big zamindars. It shows diverse social classes and the postition of different people in the society. In Pali language, the word for small farmers and zamindars was ‘Grihapati’. The big zamindars and village cheifs were considered very powerful and strong. They often had a control over small farmers. The post of village chief was often hereditary.