Factors affecting enzyme activity

Enzyme activity can be affected by a variety of factors, such as temperature, pH, and concentration.

Enzymes work best within specific temperature and pH ranges, and sub-optimal conditions can cause an enzyme to lose its ability to bind to a substrate.

• Temperature: Raising temperature generally speeds up a reaction, and lowering temperature slows down a reaction. However, extreme high temperatures can cause an enzyme to lose its shape (denature) and stop working.

• pH: Each enzyme has an optimum pH range. Changing the pH outside of this range will slow enzyme activity. Extreme pH values can cause enzymes to denature.

• Enzyme concentration: Increasing enzyme concentration will speed up the reaction, as long as there is substrate available to bind to. Once all of the substrate is bound, the reaction will no longer speed up, since there will be nothing for additional enzymes to bind to.

• Substrate concentration: Increasing substrate concentration also increases the rate of reaction to a certain point. Once all of the enzymes have bound, any substrate increase will have no effect on the rate of reaction, as the available enzymes will be saturated and working at their maximum rate.

Glycosidic Bond: Certain type of functional group which joins a sugar molecule to another group is called glycosidic bond. Another group may or may not be another carbohydrate.

Peptide Bond: A chemical bond formed between two molecules; when the carboxyl group of one molecule reacts with the amine group of another molecule; is called peptide bond (amide bond). A molecule of water is released during this reaction. This is a dehydration synthesis reaction and usually occurs between two amino acids. This is also known as a condensation reaction. The resulting CO – NH bond is called a peptide bond. The resulting molecule is called an amide. The four atom functional group – C (=O)NH – is called an amide group or a peptide group.

Phospho-diester Bond: A group of strong covalent bonds between a phosphate group and two other molecules over two ester bonds is called a phosphor-diester bond. Phosphodiester bonds make the backbone of the strands of DNA and hence are central to all life on Earth. In DNA and RNA, the phosphodiester bond is the linkage between the 3’ carbon atom of one sugar molecule and the 5’ carbon atom of another.

Nucleic acids

• Nucleic acids are long chain polymers of nucleotides; hence called Polynucleotides
• They are found inside nucleus, hence called Nucleic acids
• 2 types of nucleic acids:
• DNA
  • Deoxyribonucleic Acid
  • Specify order of amino acids in a polypeptide
  • Store genetic information, has capacity to duplicate
  • Double-stranded structure                                                           
• RNA
  • Ribonucleic acid
  • Helps in Polypeptide synthesis
  • Convey genetic information, cannot self replicate
  • Single stranded structure

Apartheid- It was the policy of social discrimination followed in South Africa. This policy divided the people and labelled them on the basis of their skin colour. Under this system, blacks were forbidden from living in white areas. Trains, buses, hotels, hospitals, schools and colleges, libraries, cinema halls, public toilets, etc. were all separate for white and blacks. In South Africa, white did not give equal rights to the native Africans.

India had raised this issue first time in United Nations General Assembly in 1946.

It was due to the constant moral support of India and the continuous struggle of Dr. Nelson Mandela, the policy of apartheid has been abolished in South Africa in 1990.

Polysaccharides

• Polysaccharides contain a large number of monosaccharide units joined together by glycosidic linkages.
• These are the most commonly encountered carbohydrates in nature.
• They mainly act as the food storage or structural materials.
• Some examples of polysaccharides are:
  • Starch
  • Cellulose
  • Glycogen

Proteins are complex biomolecules that are made up of smaller units known as amino acids. 

Due to different rearrangement of amino acids, the structure of proteins divides into four types:

• Primary- the covalent linkages of the proteins
• Secondary- the linear peptide chains fold either into an alpha-helical structure(coiled) or a beta-pleated structure(sheets) which contain hydrogen bonds.

• Tertiary- The arrangement and interconnection of proteins into specific loops and bends forms the tertiary structures. This structure contains hydrogen, ionic and disulfide bonds.
• Quarternary- this structure is proteins containing more than one peptide chain.

Primary Metabolites

These are the chemical compounds produced during the growth and development, processes. They are also involved in the primary metabolic processes of respiration and photosynthesis. The primary metabolites are formed in the growth phase. They maintain the physiological functions of the body and are known as central metabolites. They are the intermediate products of anabolic metabolism, which are used by the cells for the formation of essential macromolecules.

Secondary Metabolites

These compounds are produced by the organisms that are not required for primary metabolic processes. However, they can be important ecologically or otherwise. Secondary metabolites are considered to be the end products of primary metabolites because they are derived by the pathways in which the primary metabolites involve.

For eg., antibiotics, toxins, pheromones, enzyme inhibitors, etc. Streptomycetes and related actinomycetes are the sources of novel secondary metabolites.

• A nucleotide is an organic molecule with a basic composition of a nitrogenous base, pentose sugar and phosphate.
• DNA and RNA are polynucleotides, which contain a chain of nucleotides monomers with different nitrogenous bases.
• Nucleotides are essential for carrying out metabolic and physiological activities.
• ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) acts as the energy currency of cells. Nucleotides form various coenzymes and cofactors, such as NAD, NADP, FAD, coenzyme A, etc. and are essential for many metabolic processes.

Lipids

• Lipids are Heterogeneous organic compounds. They contain Carbon, hydrogen, less amount of oxygen, phosphorus, nitrogen, sulphur
• These are Water insoluble; therefore they form part of membranes that divide water components in the body
• Lipids perform the following functions:
  • Energy storage in the form of Oils & fats
  • Structural roles in Cell membrane
  • Messenger (steroid hormones)
  • Constituents of Plants pigments chlorophyll, carotene etc, Wax, rubber, Vitamins A, E, K
  • Fat acts as an insulator that conserves body heat in animals
  • Fat underneath the skin also act as shock absorber

Amino acids are normal components of cell proteins (called amino acid). They are 20 in number specified in genetic code and universal in viruses, prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Otherwise amino acids may be termed rare amino acids, which take part in protein synthesis e.g. hydroxyproline and non- protein amino acids do not take part in protein synthesis e.g. Ornithin, citrullin, gama-aminobutyric acid (GABA) a neurotransmitter, etc.

Chemical Composition Tests Available:

1. Chromatography. Gas Chromatography. Ion Chromatography. Liquid Chromatography.
2. Mass Spectroscopy. GC Mass Spectroscopy (GC-MS) Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP-MS)
3. Spectroscopy. FTIR (Solution & Pellet) X-Ray - EDS & XRF Analysis. Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP-AES)

One has to perform a chemical analysis in order to find the type of organic compounds are found in living organisms. We can take any living tissue (a vegetable or a piece of liver, etc.) and grind it in trichloroacetic acid (Cl3CCOOH) using a mortar and a pestle. We obtain a thick slurry.

Spherical Wavefront

• When the source of light is a point source the wavefront formed will be spherical wavefront.
• Point source means the source of light is so small that it is considered as point. It can be considered as dimensionless.
• For example: - Ripples in water are in the form of concentric circles which are spherical wavefronts.

The President also has veto power by which he can withhold or refuse to give assent to Bills (other than Money Bill) passed by the Parliament. Every bill passed by the Parliament goes to the President for his assent before it becomes a law. The President can send the bill back to the Parliament asking it to reconsider the bill. This “veto’ power is limited because, if the Parliament passes the same bill again and sends it back to the President, then, the President has to give assent to that bill. However, there is no mention in the Constitution about the time limit within which the President must send the bill back for reconsideration. This means that the President can just keep the bill pending with him without any time limit. This gives the President an informal power to use the veto in a very effective manner. This is sometimes referred to as ‘pocket veto’.

Many Germans held the new Weimar Republic for not only the defeat in the First World War but the disgrace at Versailles.

After the fall of monarchy in german,the national assembly met at weimar and established a democratic constitution with a federal structure.the german parliament or the reichstag on the basis of equal and universal votes cast by all adults including women.but since the weimar republic was made to pay for the sins of the old empire, the war damages.

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लोकतंत्र में विपक्षी दल बहुत महत्वपूर्ण भूमिका निभाता है
(i) यह दबाव समूह के रूप में कार्य करता है।
(ii) यह सरकार को जुटाता है।
(iii) यह सत्तारूढ़ दल के कामकाज पर नज़र रखता है।
(iv) यह संसद में अलग-अलग विचार रखता है और अपनी विफलताओं या गलत नीतियों के लिए सरकार की आलोचना करता है।

संसदीय लोकतंत्र की सफलता की एक आवश्यक शर्त यह है की एक संगठित विपक्षों दल अवश्य रहे | भारत का यह दुर्भाग्य रहा है की ब्रिटेन और अमेरिका की तरह यहाँ ऐसा कोई विरोधी दल नहीं हैं जो अकेले अपनी सरकार बनाने में समर्थ हो सके | भारत में राजनीतिक दलों के ध्रुवीकरण की दिशा में कभी ठोस कदम नहीं उठाया जा सका | जयप्रकाश नारायण के प्रयास के फलस्वरूप 1977 के चुनाव के अवसर पर पहली बार विपक्ष ने जनता पार्टी के रूप में उभरकर सत्ता प्राप्त की | परंतु, कालांतर में इस दल ने भी अपने को एक गठबंधन सिद्ध कर दिया और बिखरकर पुनः कई दलों में विभक्त हो गया | प्रतिपक्षी एकता के प्रयास के फलस्वरूप 1983 में भारतीय जनता पार्टी और लोकदल द्वारा राष्ट्रीय लोकतान्त्रिक मोर्चा तथा जनता पार्टी का कांग्रेस (स), लोकतान्त्रिक सामाजिक दल और राष्ट्रवादी कांग्रेस द्वारा गठित संयुक्त मोर्चा बना, परंतु यह कांग्रेस (इ) का विकल्प नहीं बन सका | कुछ हद तक चुनावी तालमेल में भले ही इन्हे सफलता मिली, परंतु, भारतीय राजनीति में इनकी कोई स्पष्ट भूमिका देखने को नहीं मिल सकी | 

1966 तक कांग्रेस (इ) पार्टी शसक्त बनी रही, परंतु 1966 के बाद लोकसभा चुनावों में भारतीय जनता पार्टी एक सशक्त दल के रूप में उभरकर आई और कांग्रेस (इ) को विपक्ष की ही भूमिका निभाने के लिए बाध्य होना पड़ा | 2004 में परिस्थिति में हल्का परिवर्तन हुआ और 2004 के लोकसभा चुनाव में सदन में सर्वाधिक स्थान पानेवाली पार्टी भारतीय राष्ट्रीय कांग्रेस ही रही | कई दलों को मिलाकर एक संयुक्त 
प्रगतिशील गठबंधन बना और केंद्र में इसी गठबंधन की सरकार बनी | इस प्रकार आठ वर्षों के अंतराल के बाद कांग्रेस पुनः सत्तारूढ़ दल की श्रेणी में आ गई | भारतीय जनता पार्टी को लोकसभा में विपक्ष की भूमिका निभाने के लिए बाध्य होना पड़ा | 2014 के लोकसभा चुनाव के बाद भारतीय जनता पार्टी के नेतृत्त्ववाले गठबंधन (राजग) के सत्ता में आने के बाद कोई भी दल विरोधी दल का दर्जा पाने में असमर्थ रहा |