Weathering causes the disintegration of rock near the surface of the earth. Plant and animal life, atmosphere and water are the major causes of weathering.

. (i) United struggle : The most important factor responsible for arousing the sense of nationalism among the Indians was the united struggle against the Britishers.
(ii) Cultural processes : There were also a variety of cultural processes through which nationalism captured people’s imagination. History and fiction, folklore and songs, popular prints and symbols, all played a part in the making of nationalism.
(iii) Bharat Mata : The identity of India came to be visually associated with the image of Bharat Mata, which was created in 1870 by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, who wrote
‘Vande Mataram’ as a hymn to the Motherland. Inspired by the Swadeshi Movement, Rabindranath Tagore painted his famous image of Bharat Mata.
(iv) Revival of Indian Folklore : The idea of nationalism was also developed by reviving the Indian Folklore.
In late-nineteenth-century India, nationalists began recording folk tales sung by bards and they toured villages to gather folk songs and legends. This was done to promote the traditional culture that had been corrupted and damaged by western forces. It was essential to preserve this folk tradition in order to discover one’s national identity and restore a sense of pride in one’s past.
(v) Reinterpretation of History : By the end of the nineteenth century many Indians began feeling that to instill a sense of pride in the nation, Indian history had to be thought about differently. The British saw Indians as backward and primitive, incapable of governing themselves. In response, Indians began looking into the past to discover India’s great achievements. They wrote about the glorious developments in ancient times. The nationalist historians urged the readers to take pride in India’s great achievements in the past and struggle to change the miserable conditions of life under British rule.

Micropropagation is the artificial process of producing plants vegetatively through tissue culture or cell culture techniques. In this artificial process of propagation, plants are produced invitro by asexual means of reproduction or by vegetative propagation.

As opposed to commonsensical knowledge, sociology like any other science has its own body of concepts and methods of data collection.

As a social science, sociology does need to have certain agreed upon meanings of social realities and processes in studying. Each subject is required to have a standard vocabulary, terminology, language and concepts through which professionals can converse and maintain the different identity of its subject.
It becomes all the more important to discuss sociological terms so as to distinguish what they mean from commonsensical usage which may have varied meanings and connotations.

• Formal social control includes written, formalized and codified statements in laws, rules, and regulations. Whereas informal control does not contain any written rules.
• Formal control agencies are authorized ones created by government and informal control agencies are created by social networks and organizations but not by government.
• Formal control is much effective and stronger than informal social control. Any situations which cannot be handled by informal control are subjected to formal one.
• Formal control is effective for even large groups of population but informal control is effective only for a small group of people.

Society is a harmonious organisation of humans. Individuals are expected to discharge their roles and perform functions accordingly. In order to exist and progress society has to exercise a certain control over its members. Such controls are termed as social control. According to L.Bernard, “Social control is a process by which stimuli are brought to bear effectively upon some person or group of persons thus producing responses that function in adjustment to the group.”

Anne Frank the author of The diary of a young girl was born in Frankfurt Germany on 12 June 1929 she was an intelligent child she was very wise for her age was different from other children of her age she was only 13 good think clearly and deeply new the difference between friendship and true friendship she had many friend before going into hiding she had loving parents and good home she felt herself alone in the world was no one in home she could confide so she decided to keep diary as a friendshe gave it name of kitty the very first entry in her diary reveals many things about her she had a very sharp memory she could write about experiences in a clear and interesting manner she had a keen sense of humour she could invent amusing argument for any subject she was mature enough thought represented herself promising writer

Differentiation between Ascribed and Achieved Status :

1. Status may be ascribed or achieved. Ascribed status is assigned to an individual either on the basis of his birth and biological characteristics such as ***, age and race or the status of his/her parents.

2. Ascribed status is assigned to an individual by the social system which remain unchangeable.

3. Example : For instance, an individual born in a royal family becomes prince or princess.

4. Similarly in our country Caste plays a vital role in determining the status of a person which is an example of ascribed status.

5. Achieved Status is a position which a person obtains through personal (his or hers, efforts.

Elements – Elements constitute the simplest chemical substances in which all the atoms are exactly the same

Electronegativity : The electronegativity of an element is defined as the relative tendency of its atom to attract electrons towards itself when it is bounded to the atom of another elements.

Social stratification

• Social stratification refers to the existence of structured inequalities between groups in society, in terms of their access to material or symbolic rewards.
• While all societies involve some forms of social stratification, modern societies are often marked by wide differences in wealth and power.
• The most evident forms of stratification in modern societies involve class divisions, others like race and caste
• The concept of stratification, then, refers to the idea that society is divided into a patterned structure of unequal groups, and usually implies that this structure tends to persist across generations.
• Different bases of social stratification like gender or class constrain existing social processes and also to opportunities and resources available to individuals or groups to compete.

For a caste to be dominant, it should own a sizeable amount of the arable land locally available, have strength of numbers and occupy a high place in the local hierarchy. Dominant castes have localised existance and operate as reference models for Sanskritising castes.

Socialisation is a process by which a person learns to behave in an acceptable manner within the society or group. It refers to the way by which the values and norms of the society or group become a part of the individual’s own way of thinking and feeling. This process is referred to as socialisation and through this the individual becomes a part of the given culture. For society to operate smoothly, individuals must be socialised into institutionalised patterns of behaviour, values and norms.

Reference Group: It is that group to which we do not belong but we aspire to be like them and therefore we try to emulate their lifestyles. For example, for many Indian youths, Americans or Bollywood stars are a reference group.

Peer Group: A type of primary group composed of individuals who are either of similar age or who share a common profession. Peer groups have a very strong influence on the life of an individual.

Satyagraha was a novel method of mass agitation. The idea of Satyagraha emphasized upon the power of truth and the need to search for truth. It suggested that if the cause was true and if the struggle was against injustice, then physical force was not necessary to fight the oppressor.
Through non-violent methods a Satyagraha could appeal the conscience of the oppressor by the power of truth, which was bound to win.

A social group can be said to have at least the following characteristics:

1. persistent interaction to provide continuity;
2. a stable pattern of these inter- actions;
3. a sense of belonging to identify with other members, i.e. each individual is conscious of the group itself and its own set of rules, rituals and symbols;
4. Shared interest
5. acceptance of common norms and values
6. a definable structure

Quasi group:

• A quasi group is a combination or aggregate that lacks organisation or structure because they are not really a group.

• The members of such groups are not aware of the existence of other groups.

• Social classes, status groups, age and gender groups are the example of quasi group.

Social group:

• A social group is a kind of people who interact with each other and share similar characteristics.

• Collectively they are driven by a common purpose and have a definite sense of unity.

• For example, if you are a member of a family or team or group, where we need to interact with each other so they are considered as a social group.

Parallels of latitudes: All of the imaginary circles parallel to the Equator are called parallels of latitudes. These circles have varying centres and all these central points lie on the same line: the axis of the earth.