Kreb's cycle is an important step in aerobic respiration which takes place in mitochondria in presence of molecular oxygen. Here pyruvic acid is further degraded into CO₂ and H₂O, releasing energy. The organic acids formed in this cycle have 3 carboxylic groups, hence this cycle is also called tricarboxylic acid cycle.

सतत विकास का मतलब है कि एक विकास को अपनी जरूरतों को पूरा करने के लिए भविष्य की पीढ़ियों की क्षमता से समझौता किए बिना वर्तमान की जरूरतों को पूरा करना चाहिए -

(i) यह महसूस किया जाता है कि आर्थिक विकास और औद्योगीकरण के कारण प्राकृतिक संसाधनों का लापरवाह दोहन हुआ है। स्थिरता प्राकृतिक संसाधनों के तर्कसंगत उपयोग को बढ़ावा देती है।

(ii) भूजल नवीकरणीय संसाधन का एक उदाहरण है। लेकिन अगर हम प्रकृति द्वारा प्रतिरूपित की तुलना में अधिक उपयोग करते हैं, तो हम इस संसाधन का उपयोग नहीं करेंगे।

(iii) एक बार गैर-नवीकरणीय संसाधनों के समाप्त हो जाने के बाद हम भविष्य में उनका उपयोग नहीं कर पाएंगे। इसलिए, संसाधनों का विवेकपूर्ण उपयोग करने से हमारे पारिस्थितिकी तंत्र के विकास की स्थिरता बनाए रखने में मदद मिलेगी।

लोकतंत्र की प्रमुख विशेषताएं हैं:

1. अंतिम निर्णय लेने की शक्ति लोगों द्वारा चुने गए लोगों के साथ टिकी हुई है।
2. यह स्वतंत्र और निष्पक्ष चुनाव पर आधारित होना चाहिए।
3. प्रत्येक वयस्क नागरिक के पास एक वोट होना चाहिए और प्रत्येक वोट का एक मूल्य होना चाहिए।
4. इसे संवैधानिक कानून और नागरिकों के अधिकारों द्वारा निर्धारित सीमाओं के भीतर शासन करना चाहिए।

1992 में विकेंद्रीकरण की दिशा में उठाए गए प्रमुख कदम थे:

1. स्थानीय सरकारी संस्थानों के सदस्यों को चुनने के लिए चुनाव कराना अनिवार्य कर दिया गया
2. स्थानीय निकायों में अनुसूचित जाति और अनुसूचित जनजाति और अन्य पिछड़े वर्ग के लोगों के लिए सीटें आरक्षित थीं।
3. एक तिहाई सीटें महिलाओं के लिए आरक्षित हैं।
4. सरकारी निकायों में चुनाव कराने के लिए राज्यों में राज्य चुनाव आयोग का गठन किया गया था।
5. राज्य सरकारों के लिए स्थानीय निकायों के साथ शक्तियों और राजस्व को साझा करना अनिवार्य कर दिया गया था।

भूमि क्षरण को नियंत्रित करने के उपाय हैं:

वनीकरण
चराई पर नियंत्रण के लिए चराई का उचित प्रबंधन।
पौधों की आश्रय पट्टियों का रोपण।
कांटेदार झाड़ियों को बढ़ाकर रेत के टीलों का स्थिरीकरण।
खनन गतिविधियों पर नियंत्रण।
उपचार के बाद औद्योगिक अपशिष्टों और कचरे का उचित निर्वहन और निपटान।
अपशिष्ट-भूमि का उचित प्रबंधन।
अति-सिंचाई से बचें, विशेष रूप से शुष्क क्षेत्रों में।
उर्वरकों और कीटनाशकों के उपयोग से बचें।

गृह का अर्थ है 'घर' और विज्ञान का अर्थ है 'व्यवस्थित ज्ञान'। इस प्रकार, गृह विज्ञान का अर्थ गृह से सम्बन्धित विभिन्न पहलुओं; जैसे आवास, भोजन, वेशभूषा आदि का व्यवस्थित अध्ययन करना है।

शुद्ध बोया गया क्षेत्र फसलों और बागों के साथ बोया जाने वाला कुल क्षेत्र है। यह एक ऐसे क्षेत्र का प्रतिनिधित्व करता है जिसमें कुल फसलें वर्ष में केवल एक बार उगाई जाती हैं।

Net sown area is the total area sown with crops and orchards. It represents an area in which total crops are grown only once in a year.
 

 इटली- जर्मनी की तरह ही इटली में भी राजनितिक विखंडन का एक लम्बा इतिहास था। इटली अनेक वंशानुगत राज्यों तथा बहु-राष्ट्रीय हेस्बर्ग साम्राज्य में बिखरा हुआ था। इटली कई राज्यों में विभाजित था। इटली पर हाब्सबर्गों, पोप और बूर्बों के राजाओं के अधीन था। केवल एक-सार्डिनिया पीडमॉण्‍ड ने इतालवी राजघराने का शासन था। 1880 के दशक में ज्युसेपे मेत्सिनी ने एकीकृत इतावली गणराज्य में एक सुविचारित कार्यक्रम प्रस्तुत करने की कोशिश की। इसके लिए उसने एक गुप्त संगठन भी बनाया। 1831 और 1848 में क्रांतिकारी विद्रोह की असफ़लतों से युद्ध के ज़रिये राज्यों को जोड़ने की ज़िम्मेदारी सार्डिनिया पीडमॉण्‍ड के ऊपर आई। मंत्री प्रमुख कावूर, जिसने इटली के प्रदेशों को एकीकृत करने वाले आंदोलनों का नेतृत्व किया न तो वह क्रांतिकारी था और न ही जनतंत्र में विश्‍वास रखने वाला था। 1859 में सार्डिनिया पीडमॉण्‍ड ने एक चतुर कूटनीतिक संधि, जिसमे कावूर का हाथ था द्वारा ऑस्ट्रियाई बलो को हारने में कामियाबी पाई। 1860 में उन्होंने दक्षिण इटली और दो सिसलियों के राज्य में प्रवेश किया और स्पेनी शासकों को वहाँ से हटाने के लिए किसानों का समर्थन पाया। 1861 में इमेनुएल द्वितीय को एकीकृत इटली का राजा घोषित किया।

The polynomial with degree greater than 2 can also intersect the x - axis at two points. Hence, it need not be a quadratic polynomial. 

The consensus that emerged among most political parties in India in spite of severe competition and conflicts:
(a) First, agreement of new economic policies: While many groups are opposed to the new economic policies, most political parties are in support of the new economic policies. Most parties believe that these policies would lead the country to prosperity and a status of economic power in the world.
(b) Second, acceptance of the political and social claims of the backward castes: Political parties have recognized that the social and political claims of the backward castes need to be accepted. As a result all political parties now support reservation of seats for the backward classes in the education and employment. Political parties are also willing to ensure that the OBCs get adequate share of power.
(c) Emphasis on pragmatic considerations rather than ideological positions and political alliances without political agreement-coalition politics has shifted the focus of political parties from ideological differences to power sharing arrangements. 

(i) End of Congress system- The defeat of the Congress Party in the election of 1989 marked the end of Congress dominance over the Indian party system. It could win only 197 seats in Lok Sabha.

(ii) Rise of Mandal Issue-The Mandal Issue started with the National Front Government’s decision to implement the recommendation of Mandal Commission that jobs in the Central government should be reserved for OBCs. This led to violent anti Mandal protests in different parts of the county.

(iii) New Economic Policy-This is known as the initiation of the structural adjustment programmes. Started by Rajiv Gandhi, these changes first become visible in 1991 and radically changed the direction that the Indian economy had pursued since independence .

(iv) Demolition of Babri Masjid or Ayodhya dispute- Ayodhya dispute started with the demolition of the disputed structure of Babri Masjid at Ayodhya in December 1992. This event symbolished and triggered various changes in politics of the country and intensified debate about the nature of Indian nationalism and secularism.

(v) Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi-The assassination of Rajiv Gandhi in May 1991 led to change in the leadership of the Congress. In the election of 1991, Congress emerged as the single largest party. The party chose P.V. Narsimha Raoas the Prime Minister of India .

1. In the initial years it was felt that linguistic states may foster seperatism and create pressures on newly founded nation, but India considered democracy and federalism by making a favor to linguistic states only. 
2. State Reorganization Commission was appointed in 1953 central Government to rearrange the boundaries of states. 
3. Its main recommendations were to organize states on language basis as well as the boundaries of states could reflect the linguistic aspects also. 
4. The State Reorganization Act was passed in 1956 which created 14 states and 6 union territories. 
5. Linguistic states enhanced democratic practices. 
6. Linguistic states reduced separatist attitude by accepting the regional and linguistic claims of all regions.

 (i) Most abrupt, unplanned and tragic transfer of population that human history has known. There were killings and atrocities on both sides of the border. Cities like Amritsar and Kolkata divided into communal zones. People were forced to abandon their homes and move across borders, they went through immense sufferings.

 (ii) Thousands of women were abducted on both sides of the border, they were forced to change the religion and were forced into marriage. Many children were separated from their parents. 

 (iii) The Partition was a division of properties, liabilities and assets as well as a political division of the country and the administrative apparatus. 

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE DISINTEGRATION OF USSR
The most important factor for the fall of the Soviet Union was a lack of proper leadership. There was no clear cut line between the party and government as there was one political party which was wielding power.
Mikhail Gorbachev’s policies of ‘Perestroika(restructuring) and glasnost (openness); and ‘Glasnost’ proved to be disastrous for the economic health of the USSR.
Anti-communists forces of the Soviet Union had the support of the USA and Western European countries. Gorbachev due to his liberal policies did not try to uproot these forces.
No effort was ever made to create a socialist human being and a socialist culture.  

The disintegration of the Soviet Union did not make much difference for countries like India because India has maintained good relations with all the post-communist countries. It has still very strong and good relations with Russia which is a successor state at the international level as is clear from the following facts :

(i) Indo-Russian relations are embedded in a history of trust and common interests and are matched by popular perceptions. Indian heroes from Rajkapoor to Amitabh Bachchan are household names in Russia and many post-Soviet countries.

(ii) Russia and India share a vision of a multipolar world order i.e., the coexistence of several powers in the international system, collective security, greater regionalism and independent foreign policy for all countries and other matters.

(iii) More than 80 bilateral agreements have been signed between India and Russia as a part ofthe Indo-Russian Strategic Agreement of 2001.

As the formula states CP=(100/(100+Gain%))×SP

=(100/(100+12))×1596

=(100/112)×1596

=1425

∴ The cost price is ₹1425

A person under the 'veil of ignorance' is unaware of her/his possible position and status in the society therefore s/he would rationally decide from the point of view of the worst-off.
It would be sensible in this situation for everyone to ensure that all resources are available equally to all persons.

“China followed its own path in introducing a market economy”. Four suitable arguments are:-
 a. The Chinese did not go for shock therapy but opened their economy step by step. 
b. The privatization of agriculture began in 1982 and was followed by the privatization of industry in 1998. 
c. Trade barriers were eliminated only in special economic zones (SEZs) where foreign investors could set up enterprises. 

d. In China, the state played and continues to play a central role in setting up a market economy. 

a. While the ASEAN region as a whole is a much smaller economy compared to the US, the EU, and Japan. Its economy is growing much faster than all these. This accounts for the growth in its influence both in the region and beyond. 

b. ASEAN has focused on creating a “Free trade Area for investment, labour, and services. The US and China have already moved fast to negotiate FTAs with ASEAN. 

c. ASEAN is rapidly growing into a very important regional organization. Its vision 2020 has defined an outward-looking role for ASEAN in the international community. This builds on the existing ASEAN policy to encourage negotiation over conflict in the region. Thus ASEAN has mediated the end of Cambodian conflict and the east Timor Crisis. 

d. The current economy strength of ASEAN, especially its economy relevance as a trading and investment partner to the growing Asian economy such as India and China, makes this an attractive proposition

a. While the ASEAN region as a whole is a much smaller economy compared to the US, the EU, and Japan. Its economy is growing much faster than all these. This accounts for the growth in its influence both in the region and beyond. 
b. ASEAN has focused on creating a “Free trade Area for investment, labour, and services. The US and China have already moved fast to negotiate FTAs with ASEAN. 
c. ASEAN is rapidly growing into a very important regional organization. Its vision 2020 has defined an outward-looking role for ASEAN in the international community. This builds on the existing ASEAN policy to encourage negotiation over conflict in the region. Thus ASEAN has mediated the end of Cambodian conflict and the east Timor Crisis. 
d. The current economy strength of ASEAN, especially its economy relevance as a trading and investment partner to the growing Asian economy such as India and China, makes this an attractive proposition. 

(a). Israeli-India relationship has reached new heights over the last few years. 

(i) Israel is the second most important defense partner of India after Russia. 

(ii) The two nations have started cooperation in various fields like cultural exchange, security and defense, counterterrorism, space research, water and energy and agricultural development. 

(iii) Centers of Excellence that Israel has opened up, cooperation in the field of agriculture can reach new heights. 

(iv) Water Harvesting is also an area where Israel stands out as a unique partner of India.

Israeli-India relationship has reached new heights over the last few years. 
(i) Israel is the second most important defense partner of India after Russia. 
(ii) The two nations have started cooperation in various fields like cultural exchange, security and defense, counterterrorism, space research, water and energy, and agricultural development. 
(iii) Centers of Excellence that Israel has opened up, cooperation in the field of agriculture can reach new heights. 
(iv) Water Harvesting is also an area where Israel stands out as a unique partner of India.

पांडव पाँच भाई थे- युधिष्ठिर, भीम, अर्जुन, नकुल और सहदेव।

“The South Asian experience of democracy has expanded the global imagination of democracy”. 
This statement can be explained by following examples:
People of South Asian countries participate in the aspiration of democracy. There is widespread support for democracy in all these countries. Ordinary citizens, rich as well as poor and belonging to different view the idea of democracy positively and support the institutions of representative democracy.

For example- India is the largest democratic country in the world. People of South Asian countries prefer democracy over any other system of governance and believe that democracy is suitable for their country.
For example- Initially, there was a monarchy in Nepal but at present there is democracy. 

The Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962 was a direct and dangerous confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War and was the moment when the two superpowers came closest to nuclear conflict.

Cuba was an ally of USSR. It received financial and diplomatic help from USSR. In 1962, the Soviet Union decided to convert Cube into Russian base and planted nuclear missiles. The President of the USA ordered the American warships to intercept any Soviet ships heading to Cuba in order to warn the USSR. Such turn of events brought the two countries closest to the nuclear war.

Political Consequences

• Globalisation results in an erosion of state capacity i.e. by reducing the ability of government to do what they want to do.
• It gives way to a more minimalist state that performs certain core functions such as the maintenance of law and order, and the security of its citizens.
• In place of the state the market becomes the prime determinant of economic and social priorities.
• Globalisation does not always reduce state capacity. The primacy of the state continues to be unchallenged basis of political community.
• State capacity has received boost as a consequence of globalisation, with enhanced technologies available at the disnosal of the state to collect information about its citizens.

 India’s Nuclear Policy:
1. India advocates no first use and reiterates India’s commitment to global verifiable on non-discriminatory nuclear disarmament loading to a nuclear weapon free world.
2. Pt. Nehru always promoted ’ science and technology to build
a modern India, i.e. initiated nuclear programme in the late 1940s under the guidance of Homi J. Bhoba.
3. India was against nuclear weapons, hence pleaded many nuclear disarmament with superpowers.
4. India always considered NPT as discriminatory and refused to sign on it.
5. Even India’s first Nuclear Test in May 1974 was termed as a peaceful explosion and India argued to use nuclear power for peaceful purposes only.