Political leaders differed sharply over the question of separate electorates because of differences in opinion. While those supporting the cause of minorities and the dalits believed that only political empowerment would resolve their social backwardness, others like Gandhiji thought that separate electorates would further slow down the process of their integration into society. Also, it was feared that the system of separate electorates would gradually divide the country into numerous fragments because every community or class would then ask for separate representations.

Satyagraha was a novel method of mass agitation. The idea of Satyagraha emphasized upon the power of truth and the need to search for truth. It suggested that if the cause was true and if the struggle was against injustice, then physical force was not necessary to fight the oppressor.
Through non-violent methods a Satyagraha could appeal the conscience of the oppressor by the power of truth, which was bound to win.

(a) Growth of nationalism in the colonies is linked to an anti-colonial movement because:

• Colonisation affected people’s freedom.
• The sense of oppression and exploitation became a common bond for people of different groups which resulted in the growth of nationalist ideals.
• People began discovering their unity in the process of their struggle with colonialism.

(b) The First World War helped in the growth of the National Movement in India in the following ways:

• During the First World War, the British army forcibly recruited people from the rural areas of India. 
• To finance the defence expenditure, custom duties were raised and income taxes were imposed.
• During 1918-19 and 1920-21, crops failed in many parts of India which resulted in acute food shortages. All this caused extensive anger and opposition against the British colonial rule, and the national movement of India headed towards a stronger and more definitive direction.

(c) Indians were outraged by the Rowlatt Act due to the following reasons:

• The Rowlatt Act was passed hurriedly through the Imperial Legislative Council despite opposition from Indian members.
• It gave the government autocratic powers to repress political activities and allowed detention of political prisoners without a trial for two years.
• It was clearly injustice and oppressive for Indians..

(d) Gandhiji decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement due to the following reasons:

• The movement was turning violent at few places. In 1922, at Chauri-Chaura in Gorakhpur, a peaceful demonstration turned into a violent clash in which more than 20 policemen were killed.
• Gandhiji felt that the Safyagrahis needed to be properly trained before they would be ready for mass struggle.
• Within the Congress, some leaders were tired of mass struggles and wanted to participate in elections to the provincial councils.

Potassium metal reacts with water to give potassium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.

Chemical equation:

2K(s)+2H₂​O(l)→2KOH(aq)+H₂​(g) 

a) On 13th April 1919, a large crowd gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwala Bagh – some to protest against the British government’s repressive measures, others to attend the annual Baishakhi Fair. These people were unaware of the imposition of Martial Law in the city. General Dyer, the Commander, blocked the exit points from the Bagh and opened fire upon the innocent citizens. Dyer’s intention was to produce a ‘moral effect’ and terrorize satyagrahis. Hundreds of innocent people including women and children were killed and wounded due to this indiscriminate firing by the British soldiers, which ultimately led to nation-wide outrage. Jallianwala Bagh incident was the most brutal incident in the History of India.

b) The Simon Commission was constituted by the Tory Government in Britain, under Sir John Simon. The objective of the Commission was to look into the functioning of the constitutional system in India and suggest some constitutional changes. But nationalists in India opposed the Commission because it had not a single Indian member. Therefore, when the Simon Commission arrived in India in 1928, it was greeted with the slogan “Go Back Simon”. All parties, including Congress and the Muslim league, participated in the demonstrations.

Various classes and different social groups of Indians participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement led by Gandhiji in 1930. All of them joined this movement on account of their own needs, aspirations and limited understanding.
(i) In the rural areas, rich farmers and peasant communities such as Patidars (Gujarat) and Jats in Uttar Pradesh were very hardly hit by the trade depression and they participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement and supported the boycott programmes.
(ii) The poor peasants also demanded that their dues of rent should be remitted.
(iii) The business classes participated in the movement to oppose the colonial policies that restricted business activities.  
(iv) Some prominent industrialists supported the movement financially and boycott the trading of foreign goods.
(v) The industrial working classes except the workers in Nagpur region stayed away from this movement as big industrialists came closer to the Congress. This was the first time that the large number of women participated in the Nationalist Movement

Lencho became angry when he received the letter because he was only given 70 pesos when he had asked for 100 pesos.

He thought that god would not deny him his wish and hence concluded that someone at the post office must have stolen the money before delivering it to him

• Political Fragmentation: Like Germany, Italy was also politically fragmented. During the middle of the 19th century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which only one, Sardinia- Piedmont was ruled by an Italian Prince.
• Role ofMazzini: Giuseppe Mazzini made efforts to unite Italian Republic. He had formed a secret society called ‘Young Italy’ for achieving his goal.
• Role of Count Cavour: He was the chief minister who led the movement to unify Italy. He formed a tactful diplomatic alliance with France and defeated the Austrian forces.
• Role of Giuseppe Garibaldi: Garibaldi also formed armed volunteers. In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdoms of Two Sicilies and succeeded in driving out the Spanish rulers.
• In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed King of United Italy.

The hack driver seemed to be a simple countryman at first appearance and was ready to help the narrator. The lawyer was in search of Lutkin and hence the hack driver took him to various places where he might find Lutkin. The next day the case came up in the court. As he was unable to find Lutkins, the lawyer was asked to go back to New Mullion with a man who had worked with Lutkins. The lawyer got shocked to find that the hack driver himself was Lutkin. He felt humiliatedand learnt not to be hasty in judging a person.

Bill told the lawyer that Lutkins was a hard fellow to catch . He was always up to something or the other. He owed money to many people, including Bill, and had never even paid anybody a cent. He also said that Oliver played a lot of poker and was good at deceiving people.

 Instant messaging (IM) is a form of communication over the Internet that offers an instantaneous transmission of text-based messages from sender to receiver. Most instant messaging software include the option for performing file transfers, audio chat, video calling and conferencing, sharing desktops, etc

Lencho's soul was filled with sadness. The hailstorm had affected the corn fields very badly. He lamented that even a plague of locusts would have left more than what was left after the hail storm. He said that they would not have any corn that year. They worked so hard throughout the year but all in vain. 

Optical fiber is the technology associated with data transmission using light pulses travelling along with a long fiber which is usually made of plastic or glass. Metal wires are preferred for transmission in optical fiber communication as signals travel with fewer damages. Optical fibers are also unaffected by electromagnetic interference. The fiber optical cable uses the application of total internal reflection of light. The fibers are designed such that they facilitate the propagation of light along with the optical fiber depending on the requirement of power and distance of transmission. Single-mode fiber is used for long-distance transmission, while multimode fiber is used for shorter distances. The outer cladding of these fibers needs better protection than metal wires.

Ordinary light is divergent and incoherent whereas laser light is highly directional and coherent.

Ordinary light is mostly unpolarized whereas light from a laser is polarized.

Ordinary light is polychromatic ( contains all colors of light) whereas light from a laser is monochromatic.

Planets do not twinkle because:1. Planets are not a source of light. Instead, they reflect low intensity light reaching them. 2. They are also closer to the Earth than the distant stars. Hence, the shift due to atmospheric refraction is smaller.3. As the planets are closer, planets appear larger in comparison to the stars. Hence, the shift is not enough for the planets to twinkle. Twinkling occurs because the apparent position of a heavenly body is not fixed because the light through them is refracted through the atmosphere. Planets appear larger to human eyes as compared to stars because they are closer. As the angle subtended by the planets at the human eye is more, the shift in their position(as compared to stars) is smaller. Since, the shift is smaller, they do not twinkle.

Nationalist tensions emerged in the Balkans because of the spread of ideas of romantic nationalism as also the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire that had previously ruled over this area. The different Slavic communities in the Balkans began to strive for independent rule. Romanticism, a cultural movement, sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment. It generally criticised the glorification of reason and Science and focused instead on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings.