Hence the solution is 

There are two general processes involved in sensation and perception. Bottom-up processing refers to processing sensory information as it is coming in. In other words, if I flash a random picture on the screen, your eyes detect the features, your brain pieces it together, and you perceive a picture of an eagle. What you see is based only on the sensory information coming in. Bottom-up refers to the way it is built up from the smallest pieces of sensory information.



Top-down processing, on the other hand, refers to perception that is driven by cognition. Your brain applies what it knows and what it expects to perceive and fills in the blanks, so to speak. First, let us look at a visual example:

Look at the shape in the box to the right. Seen alone, your brain engages in bottom-up processing. There are two thick vertical lines and three thin horizontal lines. There is no context to give it a specific meaning, so there is no top-down processing involved.


Now, look at the same shape in two different contexts.

Surrounded by sequential letters, your brain expects the shape to be a letter and to complete the sequence. In that context, you perceive the lines to form the shape of the letter “B.” Surrounded by numbers, the same shape now looks like the number “13.” When given a context, your perception is driven by your cognitive expectations. Now you are processing the shape in a top-down fashion.

Next, watch this video for an example of top-down processing with auditory stimuli. Note that at the end, once you have heard the full sentence, you can understand it even when it is broken up again. A “phoneme” is just a basic unit of speech sound.
 

The Principle of Proximity
Objects that are close together in space or time
are perceived as belonging together or as a
group. For example, Fig.5.7 does not look like
a square pattern of dots, but as a series of
columns of dots. Similarly, Fig.5.7 also looks
like a group of dots together in rows

Click on the given link and go to page no. 17

<a href="https://ncert.nic.in/ncerts/l/kepy105.pdf" ping="/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://ncert.nic.in/ncerts/l/kepy105.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwi6z7-lmKztAhVdxTgGHe8fBLYQFjAMegQIGxAC" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Chapter 5 - Sensory, Attentional and Perceptual ... - ncert</a>

Step-by-step explanation:

in triangle BCD,

semiperimeter (s) = BC + CD + BD/2

s = 60 + 30 + 70 /2

s = 160/2

s = 80

​a = root[80 x (80-60) (80-30) (80 - 70)]

a = root[80 x 20 x 50 x 10]

a = root[ 10 x 4 x 2 x 2 x 10 x 5 x 10 x 10]

a = 10 x 4 x 10 root(5)

a = 400xroot(5)

a = 894.4 (approx)

In triangle ABD,

semiperimeter (s) = AB + BD + DA/2

s = 50 + 70 + 90/2

s = 210/2

s = 105

​a = root[105 x (105- 50) (105-90) (105 - 70)]

a = root[105 x 55 x 15 x 35]

a = root[ 5 x 7 x 3 x 5 x 11 x 5 x 3 x 7 x 5]

a = 25 x 7 x 3 root(11)

a = 525 * root(11)

a = 1741.2 (approx)

Total area = ​894.4 + ​1741.2

= 2635.6 cm2(approx

.Tick (✓) the words which end with the sound id. Say each word aloud.
Ans.

Monocular cues of depth perception are effective when the objects are viewed with only one eye. These cues are often used by artists to induce depth in two dimensional paintings. Hence, they are also known as pictorial cues.

Role of binocular cues in the perception of depth: Some important cues to depth perception in three dimenstional space provided by binocular cues (both eyes). Some of them are as follows:

(i) Retinal or Binocular Disparity: Retinal disparity occurs because the two eyes have different locations in the head. They are separated from each other horizontally by a distance of about 6.5 centimeters. Because of this distance, the image formed on the retina of each eye of the same object is slightly different. This difference between the two images is called retinal disparity. The brain interprets a large retinal disparity to mean a close object and a small retinal disparity to mean a distant object, as a disparity is less for distant objects and more for the near objects.

(ii) Convergence: When we see a nearby object our eyes converge inward in order to bring the image on the fovea of each eye. A group of muscles send messages to the brain regarding the degree to which eyes are turning inward, and these messages are interpreted as cues to the perception of depth. The degree of convergence decreases as the object moves further away from the observer. One can experience convergence by holding a finger in front of his nose and slowly bringing it closer. The more his eyes turn inward or converge, the nearer the object appears in space.

(iii) Accommodation: Accommodation refers to a process by which we focus the image on the retina with the help of ciliary muscles. These muscles change the thickness of the lens of the eye. If the object gets away (more than 2 meters), the muscle is relaxed. As the object moves nearer, the muscle contracts and the thickness of the lens increases. The signal about the degree of contraction of the muscle is sent to the brain, which provides the cue for distance.

A = 30°

= 

= tan60°

= 

Therefore,

The value of

 = $\sqrt{3}$

Patrick himself did his homework. Since the elf did not know anything, Patrick stayed up at nights and worked hard

Socio-cultural factors influence our perceptions by generating differential familiarity and salience of stimuli as well as certain habits of perception. People living in different cultural settings have varying perceptions like identification of objects and interpretation of depth. For example, in the study carried out by psychologists in Africa and Europe, it was observed that the Africans have a greater susceptibility to horizontal-vertical illusions as they live in dense forests and regularly experience verticality which overestimated.

Europeans on the other hand, have a greater susceptibility to Muller-Lyer illusion as they live in an environment that has right angles. Hence, they underestimate the length of lines characterised by the enclosure.

Socio-cultural factors influence our perceptions by generating differential familiarity and salience of stimuli as well as certain habits of perception. People living in different cultural settings have varying perceptions like identification of objects and interpretation of depth.

ADHD stands for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, a complex brain disorder that impacts approximately 11% of children and almost 5% of adults in the U.S

Common ADHD symptoms include:

• inattention
• lack of focus
• poor time management
• weak impulse control
• exaggerated emotions
• hyperfocus
• hyperactivity
• executive dysfunction

Selective attention is concerned mainly with the selection of a limited number of stimuli from a large number of stimuli whereas sustained attention refers to focusing of awareness on specific objects while excluding others for the movement

Aram and Mourad didn’t want to be caught with the stolen horse. They had to keep it away from the eyes of the people, particularly its owner. Mourad had found a deserted vineyard. He took the horse inside the house and tied it there. If caught, it could bring a bad name to the family, its integrity and honesty.

Aram and Mourad have stolen the house and want to hide it in their cousin’s place.

They also want to keep it away from the eyes of its actual owner and people in their locality.

Finally, Mourad has found the best place to keep the horse, i.e. in the deserted vineyard.

He pulled the horse inside and tied it snugly.

If he is caught that he has stolen the horse, it would be a bad name for his family and their family lose the honesty and integrity.

Filter Theory was developed by Broadbent (1956). According to this theory, many stimuli simultaneously enter our receptors creating a kind of‘bottleneck’ situation. Moving through the short-term memory system, they enter the selective filter, which allows only one stimulus to pass through for higher levels of processing. Other stimuli are screened out at that moment of time. Thus, we become aware of only that stimulus, which gets access through the selective filter.

John Byro was a farmer whose horse had been stolen by Mourad. Though an Assyrian himself, he had learnt to speak Armenian. He missed his horse very badly as he had to travel long distances on foot without his surrey. He was a credulous simpleton. One day when he caught Mourad and Aram red-handed with the stolen horse, he could not trust his gut feelings about his own horse. He preferred to trust Mourad. One can call it his gullibility or the reputation of the Garoghlanian tribe.

John Byro was a farmer. He was an Assyrian. He had learnt to speak Armenian. He came to tell the narrator’s mother that his white horse had been stolen last month. It remained untraced yet.

N₂​O is more polar than CO₂​. This is because CO₂​ is linear and symmetrical. Its net dipole moment is zero (O=←C=→O).N₂​O is linear but symmetrical. It is considered as a resonance hybrid of the following two structures
:N..⁻=N⁺=O:..↔:N≡N⁺=..O:..​^−​
It has a net dipole moment of 0.116D.

John Byro was sure the horse that Mourad and Aram were sitting on was his horse that had been stolen; however, he knew the Gargholonian family was famous for their honesty and integrity; he knew no member of Garoghlanian tribe could be a thief; so he thought the horse must be a twin of his stolen horse.

John Bryo checked the teeth of horse and stated that he coud swear that it was same horse that was stolen but the fame of their family for honesty was to him.He was sure that the horse was twin of his horse ,a suspicious man would believe his eyes instead of his heart.

Perceptions of human beings are not always veridical. Sometimes he fails to interprete the sensory information correctly. This results in a mismatch between the physical stimuli and its perception. These misperceptions resulting from misinterpretation of information received by our sensory organs are generally termed as illusions. Illusion result from an external stimulus situation and generate the same kind of experience in each individual. Although illusions can be experienced by the stimulation of any of our senses, psychologists have studied them more commonly in the visual than in other senses modalities.

Illusions occur because of a result of a mismatch between the physical stimuli and its perception by the individual. The mismatch is caused by incorrect interpretation of information received by sensory organs. Illusions are called primitive organisations as they are generated by an external stimulus situation that generates the same kind of experience in all the individuals. Some illusions are universal in nature as they are found in all individuals. They are also known as universal illusions or permanent illusions because they do not change with experience and practice. Contrary to this, illusions that vary in different individuals are known as personal illusions.

Space is perceived in three dimensions. This is because of our ability to transfer a two-dimensional retinal vision into a three dimensional perception. Spatial attributes of objects like, size, shape and distance between objects also contribute towards the perception of space.

The visual field or surface in which things exist, move or can be placed is called space. We perceive not only the spatial attributes (e.g., size, shape, direction) of various objects, but also the distance between the objects found in this space. While the images of objects projected on to our retina are flat and two dimensional (left, right, up, down) we still perceive three dimensions in the space. It occurs due to our ability to transfer a two dimensional retinal vision into a three dimensional perception.

A megalith is a large stone that has been used to construct a structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones. The adjective megalithic describes structures made of such large stones without the use of mortar or concrete, as well as the periods of prehistory characterised by such constructions.

The process through which certain stimuli are selected from a group of others is generally referred to as attention.
The properties of attention are selection, alertness, concentration and search.

1. Selection— A large number of stimuli impinge upon our sense organs simultaneously, but we do not notice all of them at the same time. Only a selected few of them are noticed, e.g. when you enter your classroom you encounter several things like doors, walls, windows etc but you selectively focus only on one or two of them at one time.
2. Alertness— Alertness refers to an individual’s readiness to deal with stimuli that appear before him/her. e.g. while participating in a race in your school you must have seen the participants on the starting line in an alert state waiting for the whistle to blow in order to run.
3. Concentration— Concentration refers to focusing of awareness on certain specific objects while excluding others for the moment, e.g. in the classroom a student concentrates on the teacher’s lecture and ignores all sorts of noises coming from different comers of the school.
4.  Search— In search an observer looks for some specified subset of objects among a set of objects, e.g. when we go to school to fetch our younger sister and brother from the school we just look for them among innumerable boys and girls.

The process through which certain stimuli are selected from a group of others is generally referred to as attention.

Attention has different properties such as selection, alertness, concentration, and search.

(i) Selection: A large number of stimuli impinge upon our sense organs simultaneously but we do not notice all of them at the same time. Only a selected few of them are noticed. For example, when a student enters his classroom he encounters several things in it, such as doors, walls, windows, paintings on walls, tables, chairs, students, school bags, etc., but he selectively focus only on one or two of them at one time.

(ii) Alertness: It refers to an individual’s readiness to deal with stimuli that appear before him/her. For example while participating in a race in school, a student can see the participants on the starting line in an alert state waiting for the whistle to blow in order to run.

(iii) Concentration: It refers to focusing of awareness on certain specific objects while excluding others for the moment. For example in the classroom, a student concentrates on the teacher’s lecture and ignores all sorts of noise coming from different corners of the school.

(iv) Search: In search an observer looks for some specified subject or object among a set of objects. Example : When you go to fetch your younger sister and brother from the school, you just look for them among many boys and girls. All these activities require some kind of effort on the part of the people.

The functional limitations of sense organs of human beings refer to their limited range of stimulation. In order to be noticed, a stimulus has to be of an optimal intensity and magnitude. Thus, the stimulus has to carry a minimum value or weight. For example, our ears cannot hear very faint or loud sounds. Similarly, our eyes cannot see objects in very dim or very bright light.

Our sense organs provide us with first hand information about our external or internal world. Different sense organs deal with different forms of stimuli and serve different purposes. Each sense organ is highly specialised for dealing with a particular kind of information. However, all sense organs function with certain limitations. For example, our eyes cannot see things which are very dim or very bright. Similarly, our ears cannot hear very faint or very loud sounds. As human beings, we function within a limited range of stimulation. A stimulus, to be noticed by a sensory receptor, has to be of an optimal intensity or magnitude. In order to be noticed, a stimulus has to carry a minimum value or weight.

The minimum value of a stimulus required to activate a given sensory system is called absolute limen (AL). Absolute limen is not a fixed point, instead it varies considerably across individuals and situations depending on the people’s organic conditions and their motivational states. Hence, it is assessed on the basis of a number of trials. Further, it is not possible to differentiate between all stimuli. In order to notice two stimuli are different from each other. These has to be some minimum difference between the value of those stimuli. The smallest difference in the value of two stimuli that is necessary to notice them as different is termed as difference limen (DL). Thus, it is not possible to understand sensations without the AL and DL of different types of stimuli.

Besides the stimulus characteristics, sensory processes also depend on other characteristics. Sense organs and the neural pathways connecting them to various brain centres also play a vital role in this process. A sense organ receives the stimulus and encodes it as an electrical impulse. For being noticed this electrical impulse must reach the higher brain centres. Any structural or functional defect or damage in the receptor organs, its neural pathway, or the concerned brain area may lead to a partial or complete loss of sensation.

Aram and Mourad were cousins. Aram was nine years old. Mourad was thirteen. Both of them were fond of horse-riding.

Or

Aram and Mourad are the two characters of summer of a beautiful horse. Aram is known as a narrator of this story. He is extremely mindful and also understands the financial conditions of the house. Mourad is the cousin of the Aram who has a passion for horse and also has compelling to the horse.

• A Hub is a networking device that allows you to connect multiple PCs to a single network, whereas a Switch connects various devices together on a single computer network.
• A Hub operates on the physical layer, whereas Switch operates on the data link layer.
• Hub uses Half-duplex cable on the other hand Switch uses Full duplex cables
• Hub is a passive device while the switch is an active device
• Hub uses electrical signal orbits while switch uses frame & packet
• Hub and switch are both used in LAN

Pakistan and Bangladesh have experienced both civilian and military rulers, with Bangladesh remaining democracy, in the Post Cold War period. Pakistan began the post cold war period with successive democratic governments under Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif respectively. But it suffered a military coup in 1999 and-has been run by a military regime since then. Till 2006, Nepal was a constitutional monarchy with the danger of the king taking over executive powers. In 2006, a successful uprising led to restoration of democracy and reduced the king to a nominal position, from the experience of Bangladesh and Nepal, we can say that democracy is becoming an accepted norm in the entire region of South Asia.