Treaty of Vienna of 1815.

1) In 1895, Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria, the representatives of the European powers, had got together at Vienna to draw up a settlement for Europe.

2) Then, the delegates drew up the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 with the main objective of undoing most of the reformation that had come about in Europe during the Napoleonic Wars, to restore the monarchies that had been overthrown by Napoleon, and to create a new Conservative order in Europe.

Changes brought about by the Treaty.
3) The Bourbon Dynasty was brought back to power as it was dethroned during the French Revolution.

4)  France had annexed many states under Napolean and lost them as a result of the Treaty. To make sure that French Expansion in the future doesn't take place, a series of stats were set up at the boundaries of France.

5) Prussia was given important and new territories on its western frontiers, Austria was given control of Northern Italy. Russia was given a part of Poland, Prussia was given a portion of Saxony.

The revolutions were essentially bourgeois revolutions and democratic and liberal in nature, with the aim of removing the old monarchical structures and creating independent nation-states. The revolutions spread across Europe after an initial revolution began in France in February. Politically, they demanded constitutionalism with national unification and parliamentary administration. Economically, they demanded abolition of serfdom and bonded labour and wanted economic equality for all. Socially, the wanted to remove class based distinctions and birth rights from the society.

The fine particles of snow are a dust of snow.
The dust of snow has changed the mood of poet. The poet's mood changed from that the dismay to joy. He was holding the day in regret.
A crow was sitting on the branches of hemlock tree. Crow has shaken down the branches of a hemlock tree sprinkling the dust of snow on poet.
The little dust of snow has changed his mood and saved his day.

The heart is an organ that pumps blood throughout the body. It comprises four chambers:

• Atria (upper chambers)
• Ventricles (lower chambers)

The wall of the heart is made up of three layers:

• Epicardium- This is a protective layer made of connective tissues.
• Myocardium- This layer forms the heart muscles.
• Endocardium- This is the innermost layer and protects the valves and the heart.

The loss of soil cover due to natural agents like wind and running water is called soil erosion.

Types of Soil Erosion :
(a) Water Erosion : Water is a powerful agent of soil erosion. Following are the major types of erosion caused by water.

(i) Sheet Erosion : When the top layer of the soil is removed over a large area by the running water, it is called as sheet erosion.

(ii) Rill Erosion : This is the second stage of sheet erosion. If erosion continues unchecked for a sufficient time, (rills) or small finger-shaped grooves which are a few centimetres in depth, may develop on the landscape. Over a period of time, the fine rills increase in number and also become deeper and wider, and resemble the twigs, branches and trunk of a tree. This is called as rill erosion.

(iii) Gully Erosion : This is the third stage of sheet erosion. With further erosion of the soil, the rills may deepen and become enlarged, and are ultimately turned into gullies. The main cause of gully erosion is the removal of vegetation, particularly of trees with their widespread binding roots. Gullies cut up agricultural land and the entire area may be turned into a bad land topography. Gully erosion is also responsible for the formation of ravines.

(b) Wind erosion : Wind is a powerful agent of erosion in arid and semi-arid lands with little rainfall. Wind can lift the valuable top soil from one area and deposits in another area. The wind erosion is very dangerous type of erosion because due to wind most of the deserts of the world are expanding.

Political Fragmentation of Italy Italy had a long history of political fragmentation. Italy was divided into seven states during the middle of the nineteenth century.
Of these seven states only Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian princely house. At that time North of Italy was under Austrian Habsburg, the centre was ruled by Pope and the Southern regions were ruled by the Bourbon kings of Spain.
Role of Mazzini:
During 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini had tried to unite Italy. He formed the secret society called young Italy.
But both the uprising in 1831 and 1848 failed. Even the ruling elites also wanted a unified Italy which would offer economic development and political dominance.
Role of Cavour:
The unification of Italy was a result of many wars. Chief Minister Cavour made a tactful diplomatic alliance with France, and Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.
Role of Garibaldi:
A large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the unification movement.
In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies succeeded to drive out the Spanish rulers with the help of local people. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed as king of United Italy.