An acid is any hydrogen-containing substance that is capable of donating a proton (hydrogen ion) to another substance. 

Acidic substances are usually identified by their sour taste. An acid is basically a molecule which can donate an H+ ion and can remain energetically favourable after a loss of H+. Acids are known to turn blue litmus red.

Chloroplast posses membranous structures called "Thylakoids membrane" inside it.

Photosynthesis takes place in it because they possess the pigment called "chlorophyll" which traps the light energy and helps in its conversion to other food materials.

2x + 3 = 5/3

2x = 5/3 - 3

2x = (5-9)/3

2x = -4/3

x = -4/6

The 18308 were the years of great economic hardship in Europe due to the following reasons : (i) There was enormous increase in population all over Europe. (ii) There were more seekers of jobs than employment. (iii) People migrated from rural areas to the cities to live in overcrowded slums.

The 1830s were the years of great economic hardship in Europe due to the following reasons :
(i) There was enormous increase in population all over Europe.

(ii) There were more seekers of jobs than employment.

(iii) People migrated from rural areas to the cities to live in overcrowded slums.

(iv) There was stiff competition between the products of small producers and products imported from England where goods were made by machines as industrialisation had already taken place there.

(v) Peasants’ condition was bad due to burden of feudal dues and obligations.

(vi) The prices of food had risen due to bad harvest. This had resulted in widespread pauperism in town and country.

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Giuseppe Mazzini played an important role in forming a secret society, name Giovine Italia (Young Italy). The party's main goal was to release the Italian states from foreign rule and joining them into a free and independent unitary republic. He wanted to fight for freedom and liberty and wanted to create nation-state. He was born in Genoa 1807. 1) He became a member of Carbonari , a secret society. 2) He attempted a revolution in Liguria and was sent to exile in 1831.

The 18308 were the years of great economic hardship in Europe due to the following reasons : (i) There was enormous increase in population all over Europe. (ii) There were more seekers of jobs than employment. (iii) People migrated from rural areas to the cities to live in overcrowded slums.

The Congress of Vienna was held from September of 1814 to June of 1815. After the downfall of Napoleon Bonaparte, this international conference was called to create a balance among the European powers in such a way so as to prevent future wars and maintain peace and stability on the European continent.French returned territories gained by Napoleon from 1795 - 1810. Russia extended its powers and received souveranity over Poland and Finland. However, due to the increase of power of other European powers (Russia and Prussia) the Austrian monarchy rather lost in significance.

A Nation State refers to a country with well defined delineated boundaries, resided by people with a similar culture, shared history and ethnic character. It is also supposed to have a government of its choice. The people in a Nation State are supposed to have unity, strength and cooperation.

1. The unification of Germany was relatively easier than that of Italy. Unlike the Italians, the Germans had a Confederation Parliament and a Custom Union (Zollverein) which brought some form of political and economic unity. For the Italians, there was no form of such unity but were instead directly and indirectly dominated by Austria.

2. The actual unification of Italy took a longer period compared to that of the Germans. The first territorial achievement in the Italian unification was in 1859 and it dragged on until 1870 when the Franco-Prussian war broke out. For the Germans, they were only actively involved in three quick wars between 1864 to 1871.

3. Although Cavour and Bismarck played the greatest roles in the two unifications, Bismarck played a much greater role than Cavour. Cavour was assisted by Mazzini who politicized the Italians about the benefits of a united Italy, Garibaldi who liberated Sicily and Naples and the central states who voted in favour of Piedmont through a referendum. After Cavour's death, Victor Emmanuel II and Garibaldi were the ones who completed the unifications. Much as Von roon; Moltek and William I assisted Bismarck, the degree of assistance was less than that of Cavour. Infact, it was through Bismarck's diplomacy, blood and iron policy that Prussia became successful in ousting Denmark, Austria and France from German territories.

4. There was more foreign assistance in the unification of Italy than that of Germany. The liberation of Italian states was directly or indirectly due to the role of foreign powers. More importantly, the liberation of Venetia and Rome would not have been realized if it was not due to Prussia's role. As far as the Germans were concerned, there was less foreign assistance compared to Italy. The German unification was spearheaded by Bismarck' who manipulated international politics and united Germany on Prussian terms. In other words, he relied more on Prussian's military might in the 3successive wars through which the unification of Germany was achieved.

5. The unification of Italy was achieved at the expense of Nice and Savoy that were given to France as a compensation for her assistance in the liberation of Lombardy (in 1859). However, no single state was battered in the German unification. Although Bismarck had promised Napoleon III at the Biarritz Agreement of 1865 some territories along the Rhine, he violated the agreement and refused to cede any German state to France after the war. He instead propagandized and annexed those states to complete the unification of Germany in 1871.

6. The unification of Germany was on Prussian terms and Berlin the capital city of Prussia became the city of a united Germany. But in the unification of Italy, Piedmont with her capital Turin were not considered to be the capital city of a united Italy in 1870. Instead the city of a united Italy was shifted from Turin where it had been declared in 1861 to Rome in 1871.

7. The consequences of the two unifications also differed. The final unification of Italy was relatively peaceful without much bloodshed in 1870. In other words, the liberation ofRome was relatively peaceful because of the favourable circumstances provided by the Franco-Prussian war. Contradictorily, the unification of Germany was achieved by humiliating France in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871.

This destroyed the balance of power that hitherto favoured Britain and France. This created a hostile relationship between France and Germany that led to arms race and alliance system which disorganized Europe and led to the outbreak of the First World War.

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(1) The German unification was not supported by armed volunteers. In Italian unification, Garibaldi had won the support of local peasants to drive out the Spanish rulers.
(2) No secret societies were formed so as to achieve the goal of unification of Germany. But in Italy, Mazzini formed Young Italy.
(3) Italian unification was completed 10 years before Germany was united.
(4) Germany, in its unification had to fight against France and Austria, while in Italian unification Cavour had a tactful diplomatic alliance with France to defeat Austria.
(5) Bismarck followed the policy of‘Blood and Iron’ for German unification, while Cavour used his excellent diplomatic skills in Italian unification.

Further, the Balkan area became a place of big power rivalry. The European powers were jealous of each other's trade , colonies, naval and military. The ambition to conquest led to wars in the region and finally the First World War. The Balkan states were very jealous of each other.

(i) The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive. (ii) The Balkan area became an area of intense conflict as different Slavic nationalities struggled for their independence.

The Balkan was a region with diversity, ethnicity and geographical variation, which comprises of following countries – modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, Albania, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia- Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia,and Montenegro. Its inhabitants were known as Slavs. The Balkan issue become one of the major factors responsible for the First World War. Some of the examples were –

• Many parts of the Balkan were under the control of the Ottoman Empire. The idea of romantic nationalism and the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire intensified the situation, even though Ottoman empire tried to strengthen its position by introducing reforms but didn’t succeed, so the Balkan people demanded independence and political rights. They also proved that they were always free but later subjugated by foreign powers.

• In Balkan, Slavic Nationalities were in search of their identity and independence made the situation worse. The Balkan states wanted to capture more territories no matter how; this made Balkans a big power rivalry.

• During this time, the European powers conflicted on trade, colonies, naval and military. Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary wanted to establish their power in Balkan.

All these were the examples that made Balkan issues as the major factor responsible for the First World War.

Giuseppe Mazzini was an ‘Italian revolutionary’ who founded two ‘underground societies’. He formed ‘Young Italy’ in Marseilles and thereafter he formed ‘Young Europe’ in Berne. Giuseppe Mazzini played an ‘important role’ in supporting the ideas for the unification of Italy.  

He wanted to involve the youth in revolutionary activities so he founded the underground secret societies Youth Italy and Young Europe. He played an ‘important role’ in liberal nationalism. 

Frederic Sorrieu was a French artist who in 1848 prepared a series of four prints visualizing his dream of a world made up of ‘Democratic and Social Republics’. The distinct feature of these prints were the representations of men, nations and allegories. In the first of his print, we can see men and women marching across the statue of Liberty to offer homage. The statue holds a torch of enlightenment and the Charter of the Rights of Man. And finally, the remains of the absolutist institutions can be seen broken and shattered on the Earth indicating the end of conservatism and absolutism.

The young seagull had a great fear of flying. His parents chided him for it. They tried their best to encourage him to fly, but it went all in vain. His mother played many tricks on him. Sometimes, she flew away from the ledge and left him alone. He came out and tried to flap his wings, but his fear seized him and again he went inside. She threatened him that he would die of hunger as she did not feed him for a few days. Even then he could not gather the courage for flying. But this trick worked and he tried to make his first attempt. Soon he started flying. Thus his mother helped him to learn flying. It was clear that without the help of his mother, the young seagull could not have taken his first flight.

Definition of the "Parabolic-Trigonometric-Functions" as the coordinates of the point P ≡ (pc(ϕ) ps(ϕ)) on the parabola of equation: y = 1 − x 2 (continuous line) or y = x 2 − 1(dashed line). The angle φ is the circular angle corresponding to the area sector ϕ