Aims and objectives of education in India are given below:

(a) As per the National Policy on Education (1968), the aim of education is “to promote national progress, a sense of common citizenship and culture and to strengthen national integration”.

It laid stress on “the need for a radical reconstruction of the educational system to improve its quality at all stages, and give much greater attention to science and technology, the cultivation of moral values and a closer relationship between education and the life of the people.”

(b) The National Policy on Education (1986) reinforced these aims to state that education should further the goals of socialism, secularism and democracy enshrined in the Constitution of India.

(c) Education should strive to promote values such as India’s common cultural heritage, egalitarianism, democracy and secularism, equality of the sexes, protection of the environment, removal of social barriers, observance of small family norms and inculcation of scientific temper.

(d) Education should foster among students on understanding of the diverse cultural and social characteristics of the people living in different parts of the country.

(e) Minimum levels of learning for each stage of education should be provided to ensure the quality of education.

(f) To promote equity, educational opportunity should >e provided in terms of access to education as well as the conditions necessary for success.

(g) Universalization of primary education, total literacy, adult education and provision of wider opportunities for continuing education are also some of the aims of education.

(h) To provide opportunities to those sections of the society which cannot avail of formal education, an access to education through open and distance learning.

(i) To establish network between different institutions in the country so as to facilitate research and development, education in science and technology and participation in all activities of national importance.

An integer is a whole number that can be either greater than 0, called positive, or less than 0, called negative. Zero is neither positive nor negative. ... Zero is called the origin, and it's neither negative nor positive. Positive integers are all the whole numbers greater than zero: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... . Negative integers are all the opposites of these whole numbers: -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, ….The smallest of the numbers in the set {1, 2, 3, …} is 1. So, the number 1 is the smallest positive integer.

Temple authorities used their wealth to finance trade and company. Gradually a large number of priests, workers, artisans, traders, etc. settled near the temple to cater to its needs and those of the pilgrims. Thus towns emerged around temples. Temple towns represent a very important pattern of urbanisation, the process by which cities develop. Temples were often central to the economy and society. Rulers built temples to demonstrate their devotion to various deities.

Obtuse triangles have one angle with a measure greater than 90°.

So, given triangle is obtuse angle triangle.

Perfect balance is important between natural and Human environment because:

a. Human beings are dependent on environment for their very existence so it is important to maintain a perfect harmony between human and natural environment.

b. Environment is the basic life support system.

c. It is the environment which provides us the air that we breathe, water we drink,land where we live and food we eat.

d. Human beings make use of plants which provides raw materials and is the main source of food. Human beings use forest for timber, for wood and other natural resources like minerals for their very survival

e.Natural environment is important as it serves as the basic life support systems - air, water, soil.

f. Plants, forest cover play a major role in enhancing the qulaity of environment. They modify the local climate, control soil erosion, provide products which have medicinal value, forests provide shelter to many communities, it is source of livelihood for many communities.

g. It is important to have a perfect harmony as it maintains balance of nature.

h. If this balance is disturbed by human activities like deforestation, industrialisation it will lead to climatic changes, melting of glaciers, rising sea levels.

i. It will lead to extinction of species of plants and animals.

The word lithosphere is derived from the Greek word ‘lithos’ meaning ‘rocky’ and ‘sphaeros’ meaning sphere. It is the solid crust or the hard top layer of the earth. It comprises of: rocks and minerals.

It has various landforms such as mountains, plateaus, plains, valleys, etc. 

Muhammad bin Tughlaq is known for some of his schemes and policies which failed disastrously over the period of time. 

Muhammad bin Tughlaq transfered his capital from Delhi to Daulatabad. He did this primarily because of two reasons:

• Daulatabad was centrally located and was equidistance from Delhi and other important places.
• Since Delhi was within the reach of the Mongols, Daulatabad appeared to be at a safe distance from the possible Mongol attacks in the future.

It is said that he ordered most of the people of Delhi to shift to Daulatabad. There was resentment among the people as they did not want to shift from Delhi. As 1,500 km journey was arduous, many people died on the way and the survivors were not able to adjust to the new conditions. Without the king, Delhi now became prone to the Mongol attacks. Later, Muhammad bin Tughlaq again shifted his capital back to Delhi.

Token Currency

• Muhammad bin Tughlaq is crticised for his failed experiment with the token currency. The scarcity of silver and abundance of copper and bronze metal prompted the sultan to issue copper coins bearing same value as that of silver coins.
• However, the new copper coins bearing the same value as the silver coin did not had any complicated design on it and could be easily forged.
• People started minting coins in their houses. The forged copper coins flooded the markets. Situation became worse when the traders and merchants refused to accept these coins. Economy came to a stand still.
• Realising his folly, Muhammad bin Tughlaq issued genuine silver coins on the place of copper coins. This further drained the royal treasury.

Taxation in Doab

• Doab is a fertile alluvial tract lying between the rivers Ganga and the Yamuna. Muhammad Tughlaq increased the taxes in the Doab region as he was in need of money for raising a large army.
• Unfortunately, the increase in taxes coincided with a severe famine in the region. The tax collectors however showed no signs of mercy and ruthlessly collected taxes.
• Peasants unable to pay the taxes abandoned their lands and fled to forests.
• When the plight of peasants reached Muhammad Tughlaq, he ordered several relief measures. He opened free kitchens, distributed free grains etc. but these measures came too late and agriculture greatly suffered in the region. Thus, his scheme of taxation in the Doab failed.

Plan of Conquests

Muhammad bin had an ambition of conquering the world. He thus organised a strong army and paid them one full year’s salary in advance. He decided to annex Khurasan, Persia and Iraq. However, due to financial pressures following the failure of taxation in Doab and the token currency, he abandoned the project and disbanded the army.

Alauddin Khalji was an ambitious and powerful ruler. To fulfill his ambition he needed a very large and strong army so he made some reforms to maintain his army.

(1) He maintained a descriptive roll of every soldier.

(2) Branding of horses was also introduced

(3) Regular salaries were given to the soldiers directly by the state.

(4) Soldiers were kept well equipped with arms and weapons.

(5) Training for soldiers was arranged.

Animals are adapted to the conditions in which they live. These adaptations are because of long process of evolution.

It would be difficult for them to survive if they are moved to region having different climate conditions than from their habitat.

Consider the following examples:

1. A polar bear has thick layer of fat under their skin which acts heat insulator. It protects the bear from extreme cold climate of polar region.
2. The polar bear cannot survive if it is moved to hot and dry desert region.

The main expansion of the Sultanate took place during the reigns of Ghiyasuddin Balban, Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq. The campaigns of expansion were along the internal frontier and external frontier.

Campaigns along the internal frontier: These aimed at consolidating the garrison towns of hinterlands. These included clearing of forests in the Ganga-Yamuna doab and expulsion of hunter-gatherers and pastoralists from their habitats. These lands were given to peasants to encouraging agriculture. The trade routes were protected and regional trade was promoted by establishing new fortresses and towns.

Campaigns along the external frontier: Military expeditions into southern India that started during the reign of Alauddin Khalji culminated during the reign of Muhammad Tughluq. In their campaigns; elephants, horses and slaves were captured and precious metals were plundered by the Sultanate armies.

The armies of the Delhi Sultanate had conquered a large part of the subcontinent by the end of Muhammad Tughluq’s reign. They succeeded in defeating their rivals and seizing many cities. The sultanate collected taxes from the peasantry and also dispensed justice in its realm.

Administration and consolidation by Khaljis and Tughluqs

Reliable governors and administrators were needed for the vast kingdom of the Delhi Sultanate. The early Delhi Sultans chose to employ special slaves (whom they had purchased for military service) as governors, instead of employing aristocrats and landed chieftains. Especially, Iltutmish employed the slaves as mentioned above. These slaves were called bandagan in Persian. They were trained well to man some of the important political offices of the kingdom and their total dependence on the master ensured their reliability and dependability.

People of humble birth were also raised to high political positions by the Tughluqs and Khaljis. These people were often their clients (i.e. someone who is under another person’s protection or is dependent on another person). These people were appointed as governors and generals. But this also led to some political instability creeping in.

The slaves and clients were very loyal to their masters and patron. But they were not loyal to their heirs.

New Sultans had their own servants and hence often there was conflict between the old and new nobility whenever there was an accession. The authors of the Persian tawarikh criticized the appointment of the ‘low and base-born’ to high offices.

The steps taken to ensure that muqtis performed, their duties were following:                        (i) Their office was not inheritable.                            (ii) They were assigned iqtas for a short period of time before being shifted. (iii) Accountants were appointed by the plate to check the amount of revenue collected by the muqtis. (iv) Care was taken that the muqti collected only the taxes prescribed by the state and that he kept the required number of soldiers. I think the muqtis may have wanted to defy the orders of the Sultans in order to exercise their control over money and military resources.  

The Delhi Sultanate mobilised a large standing army in Delhi as it posed a big administrative challenge.

Alauddin Khalji constructed a new garrison town at Siri for his soldiers. He imposed taxes on land to feed the army at the rate of 50 percent of peasant's yield. He began to pay the soldiers in cash.
Muhammad Tugluq shifted people of Delhi to Daulatabad in south and thus converted Delhi into a garrison town. He also disbanded the army. He also paid the soldiers in cash.

Ghiyasuddin Balban became the king of Mamluk(Slave) Dynasty after Nassiruddin Mahmud in 1296 CE. He asserted his authority over the nobles b: i) He crushed the revolts of the Turkish nobles by transferring them to places away from Delhi. ii) He declared that the sultan is the representative of God on Earth. During his reign, Balban ruled with an iron fist. He broke up the 'Chahalgani', a group of the forty most important nobles in the court. Balban wanted to make sure everyone was loyal to the crown by establishing an efficient espionage system, in the style of the Umayyad Barid.

a n s w e r

इस पाठ से हमें संदेश मिलता है कि किसी का दुख बाँटना ही मनुष्यता है। जैसे रोहिणी ने जब मिठाईवाले की कहानी सुनी तो उसका हृदय भी द्रवित हो उठा।

The process of selecting parents to obtain special characters or features in their offspring is known as selective breeding.

Example: Selecting sheep with soft under hair and allowing them to breed.