Howard Earl Gardner is an American developmental psychologist and the John H. and Elisabeth A. Hobbs Research Professor of Cognition and Education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education at Harvard University.

In social psychology, group polarization refers to the tendency for a group to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of its members.

Psychology is the study of mind and behavior. It encompasses the biological influences, social pressures, and environmental factors that affect how people think, act, and feel.

Gaining a richer and deeper understanding of psychology can help people achieve insights into their own actions as well as a better understanding of other people.

The most obvious application for psychology is in the field of mental health where psychologists use principles, research, and clinical findings to help clients manage and overcome symptoms of mental distress and psychological illness. Some of the additional applications for psychology include:

• Developing educational programs
• Ergonomics
• Informing public policy
• Mental health treatment
• Performance enhancement
• Personal health and well-being
• Psychological research
• Self-help
• Social program design
• Understanding child development

In psychology, the focus is on the interdependence between the environment and people, as the environment becomes meaningful with reference to the human beings who live in it.

Psychological models maintain that psychological and interpersonal factors have a significant role to play in abnormal behaviour. These factors include:

• Maternal deprivation (separation from the mother, or lack of warmth and stimulation during early year of life).

• Faulty parent-child relationships (rejection, overprotection, over-permissiveness, faulty discipline, etc.

• Maladaptive family structures (inadequate or disturbed family) arid severe stress.

The psychological models include the psychodynamic, behavioural, cognitive, and humanistic-existential models.

(a) The Psychodynamic Model: This model is the oldest and most famous of the modem psychological-models.

Abnormal behaviour is viewed as the result of intrapsychic conflicts.

• This model was first formulated by Freud.

• Abnormal behaviour is a symbolic expression of unconscious mental conflicts that can be generally traced to early childhood or infancy.

An intelligence quotient (IQ) is a total score derived from a set of standardized tests or subtests designed to assess human intelligence. ... By this definition, approximately two-thirds of the population scores are between IQ 85 and IQ 115. About 2.5 percent of the population scores above 130, and 2.5 percent below 70. Approximately 95% of the population has IQ scores between 70 and 130. Approximately 99.7% of the population has IQ scores between 55 and 145. Only approximately 0.3% of the population has IQ scores outside of this interval (less than 55 or higher than 145).

• Group think is a consequence of extreme cohesiveness. So the members never criticise the leader and try to defend him.

• Group think is the name given to the tendency for certain types of group to reach decisions that are extreme and which tend to be unwise or unrealistic.

• Group-members may ignore or discount information that is inconsistent with their chosen decision and express strong disapproval against any group-member who might disagree.

• The eventual decisions are taken without criticism. The social and political consequences of group think may be far-reaching; and history has many examples of major blunders that have been the results of decisions reached in this way.

Following steps can be taken to reduce it:

• Encouraging and rewarding critical thinking. e.g., 'Best criticism award'.

• Encouraging groups to present alternative courses of action.

• Making outside expert to evaluate group decisions.

The main reasons for the people to join groups are as follows:-  (a) Security:  (b) Status:  (c) Self-esteem:  (d) Satisfaction of one’s psychological and social needs:  (e) Goal achievement:  (f) Provide knowledge and information 

• The concept of cognitive dissonance was proposed by Leon Festinger. The cognitive components of an attitude must be ‘consonant’ (opposite of ‘dissonant’), i.e. they should be logically in line with each other. 
• If an individual finds that two cognitions in an attitude are dissonant, then one of them will be changed in the direction of consonance. 
• Explanation of cognitive consistency to reduce mental discomfort.
• Explanation by referring to Radhika 

Autism Spectrum Disorder under the category of Neurodevelopmental disorders – 1 mark

•  Children with autism spectrum disorder have marked difficulties in social interaction and communication.
• They have restricted range of interests.
• They have strong desire for routine.
• They are unable to share experiences and emotions.
• They show serious abnormalities in communication and language that persist over time.
• Many never develop speech, those who do have repetitive deviant patterns.
• They show narrow patterns of interests and repetitive behaviours such as lining up objects or stereotyped body movements.

• Positive symptom –
• Hallucinations are perceptions that occur in the absence of external stimuli, positive symptoms of schizophrenia
• Auditory and visual hallucination
• Listing and description of other types of hallucinations

The relationship between behaviour and attitude is interwoven. It is usually believed that the behaviour is followed by an attitude but it is not the case always, the behaviour is exhibited only when the individual possesses a strong attitude towards anything, when the person is not being watched and when the behaviour has a positive outcome. As in a study conducted by Richard LaPierre on managers of the hotels in America, it was found that the Americans despite having a negative attitude towards Chinse travellers allowed a Chinese couple to stay in their hotels. Also Sometimes it is the behaviour that decides the attitude.

The conditions that lead the learning of attitudes are:

Learning attitudes by association: A positive association between two factors or set of people can help in learning of attitude. For example; students take a liking to a particular subject because of the teacher concerned. This is because the students are able to identify with many of the qualities of such a teacher. These qualities transcend the subject such a teacher teaches and are important to the students liking that subject.

Learning attitudes by being rewarded or punished: An individual develops a particular attitude. if she is praised for it. For example, a student who is good at sports and is called the NUMBERO UNO of sports then she develops a positive attitude towards sports and health and fitness. On similar lines, if a child is taken ill repeatedly on eating junk food, then she develops a negative attitude towards junk food and a positive attitude towards eating healthy food.

Bodily - Kinaesthetic

Intelligence – Identification  

explanation  Interpersonal

Intelligence - Identification  explanation  

Group polarization is a group influence which refers to the strengthening of groups initial position as a result interaction and discussion.
As a result of group discussion opinion shifts towards more extreme positions than those whicfi they initially held.
In group polarization, it has been found that groups are more likely to take extreme decisions than individuals alone. Group polarization occurs due to the following factors:
(i)In the company of like-minded people, people are likely to hear newer arguments favouring their view-points.
(ii)When people find others also favouring their view-point, they feel that their view is validated by the public. This is a sort of bandwagon effect.
(iii)When people find others having similar views, they are likely to perceive them as in-group.