1. The weights were usually made of a stone called chert and were generally cubical in shape with no markings.
2. These weights were used for regulating exchanges.
3.  The lower denominations of weight weere binary whereas higher denomination were in decimal with fractional weights.
4. The smaller weights were probably used for weighing jewellery and beads. Scale-pans of metal have also been found.

Archaeology is the study of past cultures. Archaeologists are interested in how people of the past lived, worked, traded with others, moved across the landscape, and what they believed. Understanding the past may help us better understand our own society and that of other cultures. Archaeology is the study of cultures that lived in the past. It is a subfield of anthropology, the study of human cultures. ... Archaeologists look for patterns in the artifacts they study that give them clues about how the people who made and used them lived.

Cunningham's Confusion were:

(i) Cunningham's main interest was in the archaeology of the Early Historic and later periods. Cunningham tried to place Harappan seals within the time-frame with

which he was familiar.

(ii) He used the accounts left by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims who had visited the subcontinent between the fourth and seventh centuries CE to locate early

settlement.

(iii) Cunningham also collected, documented and translated inscriptions found during his surveys. When

he excavated sites he tended to recover artefacts that he thought had cultural value.

(iv) A site like Harappa which was not part of the itinerary of the Chinese pilgrims, did not fit very neatly within his framework of investigation. Cunningham did not realize how old Harappa artifacts were.

Some archaeologists say that Harappan society had no rulers and that everybody enjoyed equal status.

• Others feel there were no single ruler but

several.

• Under the guidance and supervision of the rulers, plans and layout of the city were

prepared.

Big buildings, Palaces, Forts, Tanks, Wells, Canals, granaries etc were constructed under the supervision of rulers.

• Roads, drains were also constructed and cleanliness was maintained under the overall supervision of ruler.

The ruler might have taken interest in

promoting the farmer to increase production and the craftsmen to promote different

handicrafts

• He maintained and controlled extra ordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts like Seals, Weight and bricks.

During foreign attack and natural disaster he

used to play an active role by providing security and food,

He used to issue common acceptable coins

or seals, weight and measurements.

The Harappan cities were generally divided into two main parts the raised area; known as the 'Citadel', and the lower town. The Citadel was more in height because the buildings in it were built on mud brick platforms. This area was separated from the lower town by a wall. The Citadel had within its fold important buildings like the Great Bath, the assembly hall, the granary and the workshops. The lower town, on the other hand had residential dwellings.

ii. The main streets of the Harappan cities were built

according to the grid pattern. They were built from north to south and from east to west.

iii. The houses built on the corners of streets were

rounded in order to allow the passage of carts. The main road in the city of Mohenjo-daro was 10.5 meters wide and 800 meters long.

iv. The house drains relayed all the waste water to the

drains built in streets.

v. The streets were so designed as to cross the main

road of the city at right angles, thus dividing the city into square or rectangular blocks.

Who were sufis. Khangahs and silsilas

Who was sufisim

It was widely suggested that the Harappan people worshipped a Mother goddess symbolizing fertility. A few Indus valley seals displayed swastika sign which were there in many religions, especially in Indian religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. It was widely suggested that the Harappan people worshipped a Mother goddess symbolizing fertility. The earliest evidence for elements of Hinduism is before and during the early Harappan period. Phallic symbols close to the Hindu Shiva lingam was located in the Harappan ruins.

Who was sufisim

The early stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut were plain except for the stone railings, which resembled a bamboo or wooden fence, and the gateways which were richly carved and installed at the four cardinal points. Worshippers entered through the eastern gateway and walked around the mound in a clockwise direction keeping the mound on the right, imitating the sun’s course through the sky. Later, the mound of the stupas came to be elaborately carved with niches and sculptures as at Amaravati, and Shah-ji-ki-Dheri in Peshawar (Pakistan).

The sixth century BCE is often regarded as a major turning point in early Indian history. It is an era associated with early states, cities, the growing use of iron, the development of coinage, etc. It also witnessed the growth of diverse systems of thought, including Buddhism and Jainism. The C 600 BC saw the religious and economic reform movement in the Gangetic basin. Numerous religious sects arose in this area in Sixth Century BC. We hear of as many as 62 religious sects. Many of these sects were based on regional customs and rituals practiced by different people.

Lokayatas are the materialists

Types of Warehouses : There are various types of warehouses :

1. Private Warehouses : These are the warehouses owned by the traders or producers. In these warehouses they keep their own products and do not allow anybody else to keep their goods. Hence they are called private warehouses.
2. Public Warehouses : These warehouses are owned by private companies and government agencies. These godowns are large size and used by all persons such as traders, farmers, exporters, importers and government agencies. These godowns are located in the commerical centres of big cities. Their main objective is to make earning by providing storing facilities.
Once the goods are stored in the godown, warehouse receipt is issued to the owner of goods. After making the payment of godown charges goods are returned.
3. Bonded Warehouses : These are public warehouses which are licensed by the Government to accept imported goods for storage before payment of customs duty by their importers. When the importer finds that he cannot conveniently make payment of customs duty on the goods imported by him, he can request the customs authorities for storage of goods in the bonded warehouse till the customs duty is paid.

(i). Francis Bhuchanan was a British physician who served in the medical services of the East India company.For a few years he was surgeon to the Governor-General of India, Lord Wellesley. (ii). In the early 19th century he travelled to the hills of Raj Mahal and recorded his experience of the area and the people. According to his description, the hills appeared impenetrable and dangerous. He found the people were hostile and apprehensive of outsiders. (iii). If we look at late 18th century revenue records, we learn that these help people were known as Paharias. They lived around the Rajmahal Hills, subsisting on forest produce and practicing shifting cultivation. They cleared the patches of forests by cutting bushes and burning the undergrowth. (iv). On these patches, enriched by the Potash from the ash, the Paharias grew a variety of pulses and millets for consumption. (v). They loosened the ground lightly with hoes, cultivated the cleared land for a few years, then left it fallow so that it could recover its fertility, and moved to a new area. (vi). From the forests they collected mahua (a flower) for food, silk cocoons and resin for sale, and wood for charcoal production. (vii).The undergrowth that spread like a mat below the trees and the patches of grass that covered the lands left fallow prpvided pasture for cattle. (viii). The record of Bhuchanan was written as a diary. It talked about a moment of time in his life. Hence, we need to look to other sources of history to fully understand the hill people.

In one sentence we can answer that the great bath was a rectangular structured pool where people come to take special religious bath.

The Great Bath—a rectangular structure which resembled a swimming pool—was an important structure at Mohenjodaro. It was a large complex with six entrances, a central bathing pool, dressing rooms on all sides and an adjacent well. Steps lead to the bottom of the pool from two sides. Water from an adjacent well was used to fill the pool with fresh water, and an outlet in the corner was used to drain dirty water. It was made up of baked bricks and was made watertight with a layer of bitumen or natural tar. The Great Bath was perhaps used by important people on special occasions.

The drainage system of harappa were:- (i) they were planned in such a way that they follow proper grid system. (ii) they were made along the wall of every house and are connected to the main drain at the end of the street. (iii) they were made up of the burnt bricks. (iv) they were closed by the gypsum or mortar slab so that could be cleaned at a regular interval of time.

Drainage system of Harappan cities-
(i) The drainage system was planned very carefully.
(ii) Road and streets were laid out along an approximate grid pattern intersecting at right angles.
(iii) Streets were laid out with drains and he drains were covered.
(iv) The houses were built along them. Domestic waste water had to flow into the street drains.
(v) The drains could be cleaned at regular intervals. The drains were made of burnt bricks

Features of teh Mahajanpads were:

• Mahajanpads were forms of early states which were formed after combining several 'janas'. In sixth century BCE ancient India, there were 16 mahajanpads. 
• While some mahajanpads had a monarchial form of governement ruled by the king, others were 'gana' or 'sanghas' or oligarchies. They were ruled by a group of people.
• Each mahajanpad had its own fortified capital city. The king lived in the capital.
• As mahajanpads developed, they built large standing armies and the system of bureaucracy to administer states.
• The king collected taxes from the people and spent the revenues on state administration and building of armies.

 (i) The British were unwilling to tolerate the power of Taluqdars. Immediately after the annexation, the taluqdars were disarmed and their forts destroyed.
 (ii) The British land revenue policy further undermined the position and authority of the taluqdars.
 (iii) The Summary Settlements proceeded to remove the taluqdars wherever possible.
 (iv) It was based on the assumption that the taluqdars were interlopers with permanent stakes in land.
 (v) The ties of loyalty and patronage that had bound the peasants to the taluqdars were disrupted.

The Manusmriti laid down what it described as the duties of the chandalas. They were expected to live outside the village; use discarded bowls, with dogs and donkeys as their wealth. They were to wear the clothes of the dead, and eat out of broken dishes; wear ornaments of black iron, and wander constantly.

NAPOLEON had brought revolutionary changes in the administrative field :

1. The Napoleon Civil Code of 1804 did away with all privileges based on birth and established equality before the law.
2. Secured the right of property.
3. Abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
4. Napoleon simplified administrative divisions;
5. In the towns, guild restrictions were removed.

The main features of Mauryan administration were:

• There were five important political centres in the Mauryan Empire: Patliputra (the capital city) and the provincial centres of Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvarnagiri.
• It was not possible for such a large empire to have a uniform administrative system so historians believe that the administrative control was perhaps strongest in the capital and in provincial centres.
• Communications along the land and riverine routes were developed to administer the Empire.
• The army was an important tool for not only extending the territories of the empire but also for administering them.
• Committees and sub-committees were formed for coordinating military activities. They looked after the navy, horses, chariots, elephants, recruiting soldiers and managing transport and food supplies for soldiers.
• Asoka held his Empire together by propagating the doctrine of Dhamma, whose principles were simple and universally applicable. The doctrine propagated the ideas of peace, non-violence and respect towards elders. Dhamma mahamatt as were appointed to spread the principles of Dhamma.
• The last feature of the Mauryan administration is evident in the Asokan inscriptions that we have studied. It is because Ashoka inscribed the main features of his policy of ‘dhamma’. According to the inscriptions, he had also appointed Special officers called Dhamma Mahamtras to spread Dhamma.

Prabhavati Gupta was the daughter of one of the most important rulers in early Indian history, Chandragupta II (c. 375-415 CE). She was married into another important ruling family, that of the Vakatakas, who were powerful in the Deccan

The following are the main principles of Ashoka’s dhamma:

1. People should live in peace and harmony.
2. Everyone should practise the principle of ahimsa, i.e. non-violence and non-injury to all living beings.
3. People should love one another and display respect and tolerance towards other religious faiths.
4. Children should obey their elders and elders should treat children with understanding.
5. People should be truthful, charitable and kind to all, even towards servants and slaves.

Between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, Magadha (in present-day Bihar) became the most powerful Mahajanapada. Modern historians explain this in a variety of ways.
(i) It was a region where agriculture was especially productive.
(ii) Besides, iron mines (in present-day Jharkhand), were accessible and provided resources for tools and weapons.
(iii) Elephants, an important component of the army, were found in forest in the region.
(iv) Moreover, the Ganga and its tributaries provided a means of cheap and convenient communication.

When we look into the sources of the past ordinary people has rarely left any account of their life's experience or thoughts. Hence it becomes very difficult for the scholars to construct their life, however scholars have tried various methods to understand ordinary people by:
1. Examining stories contained in anthologies such as the Jatakas and the Panchatantra. Although stories this tales tends to tell us lots about the ordinary people.
2.  Different types of foodgrains and animal bones have been found during excavation. It gives us information about dietary practices of people.
3.  Remains of houses and pots inform us about their daily and household life.
4. There is a mention of different types of crafts and craftsmen on certain inscriptions. It is a very good source of knowing economic life of people.
5. Some inscriptions and scriptures inform us about king-subject relations, different types of taxes and miseries or happiness of people.