The Manusmriti laid down what it described as the duties of the chandalas. They were expected to live outside the village; use discarded bowls, with dogs and donkeys as their wealth. They were to wear the clothes of the dead, and eat out of broken dishes; wear ornaments of black iron, and wander constantly.

NAPOLEON had brought revolutionary changes in the administrative field :

1. The Napoleon Civil Code of 1804 did away with all privileges based on birth and established equality before the law.
2. Secured the right of property.
3. Abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
4. Napoleon simplified administrative divisions;
5. In the towns, guild restrictions were removed.

The main features of Mauryan administration were:

• There were five important political centres in the Mauryan Empire: Patliputra (the capital city) and the provincial centres of Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvarnagiri.
• It was not possible for such a large empire to have a uniform administrative system so historians believe that the administrative control was perhaps strongest in the capital and in provincial centres.
• Communications along the land and riverine routes were developed to administer the Empire.
• The army was an important tool for not only extending the territories of the empire but also for administering them.
• Committees and sub-committees were formed for coordinating military activities. They looked after the navy, horses, chariots, elephants, recruiting soldiers and managing transport and food supplies for soldiers.
• Asoka held his Empire together by propagating the doctrine of Dhamma, whose principles were simple and universally applicable. The doctrine propagated the ideas of peace, non-violence and respect towards elders. Dhamma mahamatt as were appointed to spread the principles of Dhamma.
• The last feature of the Mauryan administration is evident in the Asokan inscriptions that we have studied. It is because Ashoka inscribed the main features of his policy of ‘dhamma’. According to the inscriptions, he had also appointed Special officers called Dhamma Mahamtras to spread Dhamma.

Prabhavati Gupta was the daughter of one of the most important rulers in early Indian history, Chandragupta II (c. 375-415 CE). She was married into another important ruling family, that of the Vakatakas, who were powerful in the Deccan

The following are the main principles of Ashoka’s dhamma:

1. People should live in peace and harmony.
2. Everyone should practise the principle of ahimsa, i.e. non-violence and non-injury to all living beings.
3. People should love one another and display respect and tolerance towards other religious faiths.
4. Children should obey their elders and elders should treat children with understanding.
5. People should be truthful, charitable and kind to all, even towards servants and slaves.

Between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, Magadha (in present-day Bihar) became the most powerful Mahajanapada. Modern historians explain this in a variety of ways.
(i) It was a region where agriculture was especially productive.
(ii) Besides, iron mines (in present-day Jharkhand), were accessible and provided resources for tools and weapons.
(iii) Elephants, an important component of the army, were found in forest in the region.
(iv) Moreover, the Ganga and its tributaries provided a means of cheap and convenient communication.

When we look into the sources of the past ordinary people has rarely left any account of their life's experience or thoughts. Hence it becomes very difficult for the scholars to construct their life, however scholars have tried various methods to understand ordinary people by:
1. Examining stories contained in anthologies such as the Jatakas and the Panchatantra. Although stories this tales tends to tell us lots about the ordinary people.
2.  Different types of foodgrains and animal bones have been found during excavation. It gives us information about dietary practices of people.
3.  Remains of houses and pots inform us about their daily and household life.
4. There is a mention of different types of crafts and craftsmen on certain inscriptions. It is a very good source of knowing economic life of people.
5. Some inscriptions and scriptures inform us about king-subject relations, different types of taxes and miseries or happiness of people.

(i) The drainage system was planned very carefully.
(ii) Road and streets were laid out along an approximate grid pattern intersecting at right angles.
(iii) Streets were laid out with drains and he drains were covered.
(iv) The houses were built along them.
(v) The drains could be cleaned at regular intervals. The drains were made of burnt bricks

Archaeologists reconstruct the past in the following manners:
(i) They excavate the ancient sites related with culture or civilisation. They find out remains from the site such as seal, material remains of houses, buildings, pots, ornaments, tools, coins, weights, measurements and toys etc.
(ii) Sometimes they find skull a, tones, teeth, jaws, and some articles kept with the bodies. Archaeologists take help of botanists, who are specialists in ancient plant remains. They also study the animal bones found at different sites with the help of zoologist.
(iii) Archaeologists try to identify the tools and implements used for cultivation and harvesting. They try to find out traces of means of irrigation such as wells, canals, tanks etc.
(iv) They used present day analogies to try and understand what ancient artefact were used for. Sometimes they compare the ancient findings with present day articles.
(v) Archaeologists observe the different layers of sites and try to find out different things which give pictures of socio-economic conditions, religions and cultural life of the past people in different times.

Archaeologists reconstruct the past by a study of the artefacts which they unearth such as seals, coins, remains of buildings, clay, pots or burnt grains. Archaeologist reconstruct the past in the following ways:

• Archaeologists excavate the ancient sites. They try to find about the life of the people by studying various unearthed artefacts such as remains of houses, pots, jewellery, coins, agricultural tools, weighs etc.
• Zooarchaeologists study the animal bones and try to find out if these animals were domesticated. For example, Animal bones found at Harappan sites include those of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig. It show us that the Harappans were aware of these animal.
• Archaeologists try to find about the prevalence of agriculture by finding the remains of burnt grains. Some ways by which they try to find about the agricultural practices is by studying seals and terracotta sculptures. For example, representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and archaeologists extrapolate from this that oxen were used for ploughing.
• Archaeologists also try to find about social or economic differences amongst people in the past by studying burial sites. When graves contain pottery and ornaments, it indicate that people during that time believed in afterlife.
• Archaeologists try to look for raw material such as stone nodules, whole shells, copper ore; tools; unfinished objects; rejects and waste materials to identify the centres of craft production.
• Religious beliefs of the people can be reconstructed based on the study of seals and coins. In the Harappan Civilisation, some seals depicted rituals while some seals had plat motifs on them indicating nature worship.

The inscriptions on stones and copper plates are the main source of information to know about the system of land grants and trade from C.600 BCE to 600 CE.

Land Grants:

1. Grants were made to religious institutions and Samantas.

2. Brahmans were given Agrahara grants.

3. The system of giving land as grants was adopted as a strategic tool to extend Brahmanical practices and to provide scope for the expansion of agriculture.

4. The kings wanted to make allies as the weakening of the powers was evident.

Trade Practices:

1. Both Inland and overseas trade flourished.

2. Inland trade developed within the country whereas trade relations were established with Central and West Asia and Northern Africa.

3. Inland trade was done through the rivers.

4. Merchants used caravans and bullock cart while the peddlers travelled on foot to carry on their business.

5. Salt, timber, cloth, spices and medicinal plants were some of the items that were traded.

6. Punch marked coins were introduced to facilitate trade.

7. The texts written in Tamil and Pali provide us with enough information on the trade practices during the period.

The inscriptions on stones and copper plates are the main source of information to know about the system of land grants and trade from C.600 BCE to 600 CE.

Land Grants:

1. Grants were made to religious institutions and Samantas.

2. Brahmans were given Agrahara grants.

3. The system of giving land as grants was adopted as a strategic tool to extend Brahmanical practices and to provide scope for the expansion of agriculture.

4. The kings wanted to make allies as the weakening of the powers was evident.

Trade Practices:

1. Both Inland and overseas trade flourished.

2. Inland trade developed within the country whereas trade relations were established with Central and West Asia and Northern Africa.

3. Inland trade was done through the rivers.

4. Merchants used caravans and bullock cart while the peddlers travelled on foot to carry on their business.

5. Salt, timber, cloth, spices and medicinal plants were some of the items that were traded.

6. Punch marked coins were introduced to facilitate trade.

The Magadha Empire was the most powerful Kingdom in Ancient India. It had powerful kings like Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Dhana Nanda, Chandragupta Maurya, etc.
This rise of Magadha Imperialism is unique in Indian history. The political history of India from the earliest times till the present day is an endless story of struggle between the forces of concentration and decentralization.
In the sixth century B.C., India obtainable the chronic symptom of disintegration. The Aryan India in the North was divided into, sixteen countless kingdoms and a number of republican, autonomous states.
Out of the mix of political atoms, four empires viz., Avanti, Vatsa, Kosala and Magadha, Magadha Empire rose into prominence by aggrandizing upon other weaker states. They entered into a four-power battle for imperial reign which ended in the ultimate victory of Magadha Kingdom over them. It is the first successful attempt for grand and dynastic unification of India in the period of recorded history.
One of the main factors behind the rise of Magadhan Control was her economic solvency and growing prosperity. Magadha had a vast population which could be employed in agriculture, mining and for manning her army. The Sudras and the non-Aryans could be employed in clearing up the forest and reclaim surplus land for undeveloped. The surplus populace could easily live on the yield of the surplus land. The Magadhan lands were very fertile due to its location between the Ganges and the Son. In the 4th Century B.C. that the Magadhan lands yielded multiple crops round the year. People of Magadhan Empire became prosperous due to fertility of the land and the government became automatically rich and powerful.

The demand for taxes by the kings had considerably increased during the period 600 BCE to 600 A.D. To fulfil this demand for more taxes, the farmers started finding all new means to increase the production of their crops. Consequently many changes took place in the means and methods of agriculture:
(i) Prevalence of Ploughs: One method that helped increasing the production was the popularity of plough. The use of a plough had started in the 6th century BCE in the valleys of Ganga and kaveri. The plough with an iron tip was used in areas which had an ample rainfall. It was used in fertile land. It resulted in increasing the production of paddy. No doubt the farmers had to work a lot to achieve this target.
(ii) Use of Spade: Though plough helped in increasing the production yet its use was limited to only some areas. In Punjab and Rajasthan, which has less rainfall, the plough was used in the early period of the 20th century. Those farmers who lived in the north-east and mid-mountainous regions, used spade to dig fields. The spade was quite useful in such areas.
(iii) Irrigation: Another method to increase the production was irrigation. For this purpose, the wells, the tanks and the canals were used. These were developed by the people individually. At some places, the farmers also joined hands and worked collectively to develop these means of irrigation. However the kings and other dominating elite people developed wells, ponds and canals individually for irrigation of land.
Impact of new Methods of Agriculture: The production in the fields increased considerably because of these modern techniques but many differences also emerged among the people because of these new methods. In Buddhist stories, we find a mention of labourers, small farmers and big zamindars. It shows diverse social classes and the postition of different people in the society. In Pali language, the word for small farmers and zamindars was ‘Grihapati’. The big zamindars and village cheifs were considered very powerful and strong. They often had a control over small farmers. The post of village chief was often hereditary.

The main features of Mauryan administration were:

• There were five important political centres in the Mauryan Empire: Patliputra (the capital city) and the provincial centres of Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvarnagiri.
• It was not possible for such a large empire to have a uniform administrative system so historians believe that the administrative control was perhaps strongest in the capital and in provincial centres.
• Communications along the land and riverine routes were developed to administer the Empire.
• The army was an important tool for not only extending the territories of the empire but also for administering them.
• Committees and sub-committees were formed for coordinating military activities. They looked after the navy, horses, chariots, elephants, recruiting soldiers and managing transport and food supplies for soldiers.
• Asoka held his Empire together by propagating the doctrine of Dhamma, whose principles were simple and universally applicable. The doctrine propagated the ideas of peace, non-violence and respect towards elders. Dhamma mahamatt as were appointed to spread the principles of Dhamma.
• The last feature of the Mauryan administration is evident in the Asokan inscriptions that we have studied. It is because Ashoka inscribed the main features of his policy of ‘dhamma’. According to the inscriptions, he had also appointed Special officers called Dhamma Mahamtras to spread Dhamma.

The study of inscription is known as Epigraphy inscriptions were engraved or carved on seal , stone , pillars , copper plates , ivory , Temple wall , and images . The kings of ancient India tried to glorify themselves through inscription. James Princep first deciphered indian inscription in 1837 the inscription are of various type like euology and prasasti, commemorative, religious, royal orders , records of donations , gifts etc.

The following are the main principles of Ashoka’s dhamma:

1. People should live in peace and harmony.
2. Everyone should practise the principle of ahimsa, i.e. non-violence and non-injury to all living beings.
3. People should love one another and display respect and tolerance towards other religious faiths.
4. Children should obey their elders and elders should treat children with understanding.
5. People should be truthful, charitable and kind to all, even towards servants and slaves.

Features of teh Mahajanpads were:

• Mahajanpads were forms of early states which were formed after combining several 'janas'. In sixth century BCE ancient India, there were 16 mahajanpads. 
• While some mahajanpads had a monarchial form of governement ruled by the king, others were 'gana' or 'sanghas' or oligarchies. They were ruled by a group of people.
• Each mahajanpad had its own fortified capital city. The king lived in the capital.
• As mahajanpads developed, they built large standing armies and the system of bureaucracy to administer states.
• The king collected taxes from the people and spent the revenues on state administration and building of armies.

The Magadha Empire was the most powerful Kingdom in Ancient India. It had powerful kings like Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Dhana Nanda, Chandragupta Maurya, etc.
This rise of Magadha Imperialism is unique in Indian history. The political history of India from the earliest times till the present day is an endless story of struggle between the forces of centralization and decentralization.
In the sixth century B.C., India presented the chronic symptom of disintegration. The Aryan India in the North was divided into, sixteen great kingdoms and a number of republican, autonomous states.
Out of the medley of political atoms, four kingdoms viz., Avanti, Vatsa, Kosala and Magadha, Magadha Empire rose into prominence by aggrandizing upon other weaker states. They entered into a four-power conflict for imperial supremacy which ended in the ultimate victory of Magadha Kingdom over them. It is the first successful attempt for imperial and dynastic unification of India in the period of recorded history.
One of the main factors behind the rise of Magadhan Power was her economic solvency and growing prosperity. Magadha had a vast population which could be employed in agriculture, mining and for manning her army. The Sudras and the non-Aryans could be employed in clearing up the forest and reclaim surplus land for farming. The surplus population could easily live on the yield of the surplus land. The Magadhan lands were very fertile due to its location between the Ganges and the Son. In the 4th Century B.C. that the Magadhan lands yielded multiple crops round the year. People of Magadhan Empire became prosperous due to fertility of the land and the government became automatically rich and powerful.

The Harappan and the Mohenjodaro cities were known as well-planned cities because:

• The settlement was divided into two sections: Citadel (built on a higher elevation) and Lower Town. The Citadel was walled and separated from the Lower Town. The Lower Town was also walled.
• Bricks used in building the city’s houses were of standardised ratio.
• Roads in the cities were laid out along a grid pattern intersecting each other at right angles.
• The cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation had an advanced system of drainage. Every house was connected to the street drain. House drains emptied themselves into the main drain.  
• The drainage system and drains were covered with bricks or stones. They were provided with inspection holes at regular intervals for cleaning.
• House drains first emptied into sumps into which solid matter settled and wastewater flowed into the street drains.