Indus Valley Civilisation produced a lot of artefacts and art forms. Indus Valley art form emerged during the second half of the third millennium BCE (i.e. from 2500 BC onwards). Thousands of seals have been discovered by archaeologists from the Harappan sites. Most of the seals were made of steatite, which is a kind of soft stone. A few of them were also made of terracotta, gold, agate, chert, ivory and faience. The standard Harappan seal was square in shape with a 2X2 dimension. It is believed that the seals were used for commercial purposes. A few seals were also carried as amulets, perhaps as a kind of identity card. All the seals have pictures of animals with something written in a pictographic script (which is yet to be deciphered). Chiefly, the animals represented are tigers, elephants, bulls, bisons, goats and so on. Most of the seals have been written on both sides. The writings are in the Kharosthi style (right to left). Some seals have mathematical images and must have been used for educational purposes. The most famous seal is the Pashupati Seal of Harappan civilization from Mohenjo Daro. It is a seal with a figure seated cross-legged in the centre with animals around; an elephant and a tiger to the right of the figure and a rhino and a buffalo to its left.

Indus Valley civilization relied on the considerable technological achievements of the pre-Harappan culture, including the plough. The farmers of the Indus Valley grew peas, sesame, and dates. Rice was cultivated in the Indus Valley Civilization. Indus civilization people practiced rainfall harvesting. At a recently discovered Indus civilization site in western India, archaeologists discovered a series of massive reservoirs, hewn from solid rock and designed to collect rainfall, that would have been capable of meeting the city's needs during the dry season. The Indus cotton industry was well developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication. Agricultural activity during the second millennium BC included rice cultivation in the Kashmir and Harrappan regions are noticed. Mixed farming was the basis of the Indus valley economy. Several wild cereals, including rice, grew in the Vindhyan Hills, and rice cultivation, at sites such as Chopani-Mando and Mahagara, was underway as early as 7000 BC. Chopani-Mando and Mahagara are located on the upper reaches of the Ganges drainage system. Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization by around 4500 BC. The size and prosperity of the Indus civilization grew as a result of this innovation. It eventually led to more planned settlements making use of drainage and sewers. Sophisticated irrigation and water storage systems were developed by the Indus Valley Civilization, including artificial reservoirs at Girnar dated to 3000 BC, and an early canal irrigation system in 2600 BC. Archaeological evidence of an animal-drawn plough dates back to 2500 BC. Some animalsthought to be vital for survival were worshiped. Trees were also domesticated and worshiped. Pipal and Banyan tree was venerated. Others tress that had their medicinal uses found mention in the holistic medical system Ayurveda. read less

The main features of Mauryan administration were:

• There were five important political centres in the Mauryan Empire: Patliputra (the capital city) and the provincial centres of Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvarnagiri.
• It was not possible for such a large empire to have a uniform administrative system so historians believe that the administrative control was perhaps strongest in the capital and in provincial centres.
• Communications along the land and riverine routes were developed to administer the Empire.
• The army was an important tool for not only extending the territories of the empire but also for administering them.
• Committees and sub-committees were formed for coordinating military activities. They looked after the navy, horses, chariots, elephants, recruiting soldiers and managing transport and food supplies for soldiers.
• Asoka held his Empire together by propagating the doctrine of Dhamma, whose principles were simple and universally applicable. The doctrine propagated the ideas of peace, non-violence and respect towards elders. Dhamma mahamatt as were appointed to spread the principles of Dhamma.
• The last feature of the Mauryan administration is evident in the Asokan inscriptions that we have studied. It is because Ashoka inscribed the main features of his policy of ‘dhamma’. According to the inscriptions, he had also appointed Special officers called Dhamma Mahamtras to spread Dhamma.

Jaat means that the rank, place and salary of the person has been fixed. But the rank Sawar denoted the number of horses. According to their ranks the mansabdars were classified into three categories. Only that person can be appointed as a mansabdar whose Jaat and Sawar ranks were at par.

Subsistence means the minimal resources that are necessary for survival. If you work for subsistence, you'll probably receive food, water, and lodging (internet access not included). Subsistence can be used in a variety of subtly different ways. An example of countries with subsistence economy in 2015 are China,India,part of Rusia... The activities of the subsistence economics is based on agriculture and livestock.

Janapadas were major kingdoms of India during vedic times. These janapadas then evolved into 16 mahajanapadas. Mahanjanapadas were great kingdoms which flourished in the belt of Gandhara in the north west and Anga in the east.

Rules of marriage:

(i) While sons were important for the continuity of the patrilineage, daughters were viewed rather differently within this frame work. They had no claims to the resources of the household.

(ii) At the same time, marrying them into families outside the kin was considered desirable.

(iii) The belief of Kanyadan, the gift of a daughter in marriage was an important religious duty of the father.

(iv) The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastra recognised as many as eight forms of marriage. Of these, the first four were considered as good while the remaining were condemned.

Rules of marriage:
(i) While sons were important for the continuity of the patrilineage, daughters were viewed rather differently within this frame work. They had no claims to the resources of the household.
(ii) At the same time, marrying them into families outside the kin was considered desirable.
(iii) The belief of Kanyadan, the gift of a daughter in marriage was an important religious duty of the father.
(iv) The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastra recognised as many as eight forms of marriage. Of these, the first four were considered as good while the remaining were condemned.

I think rulers would have made arrangement for irrigation for the following reasons:
(i) To increase agricultural production.
(ii) Land revenue was the most important source of state income. Only good crops and enough agricultural production enables the farmers to pay land revenue in time.
(iii) In ancient times agriculture was main occupation and the farmers were most important working class of the society. And the whole economy of the kingdom depended on agriculture.

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