The relationship between the Sufis and the State from the eighth to the eighteenth century is explained as follows:

In order to seek God, the Sufis, a group of religious-minded people, turned to asceticism and mysticism in the early centuries of Islam.
The Sufi saints accepted donations and grants from the political elites but never accumulated it. They spent it on major requirements of daily life.
They used to live a simple and disciplined life.
The Sufi saints were enlisted by the Sultans in order to garner support from the general population.
Despite the cooperation and mutual obligation between the State and the saints, there are various examples of conflict between the two.
Both the Sufis and the State wanted to assert their authority over the people and thus, emphasized the prostration and kissing of the feet.

Andal - Woman Alwar - She composed many poems.
Karaikkal Ammaiyar - devotee of Shiva. She adopted the path of extreme asceticim to gain her goal.

(i) The Mughal rulers believed in Divine theory of Kingship. They tried to convey this theory and vision through the writing of dynastic history. For this purpose they appoint court- historians to write accounts. These accounts recorded the events of the emperor’s time. In addition, their writers collected vast amounts of information from the regions of the subcontinent to help the rulers govern their domain.
(ii)    Modem historians’ writings in English have termed this genre of texts chronicles, as they present a continuous chronological record of events.
(iii)    Chronicles are an indispensable sources for any scholar wishing to write a history of the Mughals. At one level they were a repository of factual information about the institutions of the Mughal state, painstakingly collected and classified by individuals closely connected with the court.
At the same time these texts were intended as conveyors of meanings that the Mughal rulers sought to impose on their domain. They therefore give us a glimpse into how imperial ideologies were created and disseminated.
(iv)    Chronicles commissioned by the Mughal emperors are an important source for studying the empire and its court. They were written in order to project a vision of an enlightened kingdom to all those who came under its umbrella. At the same time they were meant to convey to those who resisted the rule of the Mughals that all resistance was destined to fail. Also, the rulers wanted to ensure that there was an account of their rule for posterity.

It is not always easy to understand the sculptures in the Sanchi Stupa using Buddhist literature, however we should understand that the literature has helped us a lot in deciphering what sculptures meant.However there are reasons why we are not able to understand the sculpture properly is that 
1. many artist did not make buddha in human form but made symbols that symbolised an act of buddha, for example empty seat meant meditationof buddha, stupa was suppose to mean parinibbana. Thus if we do not understand the symbolic meaning we are not able to understand the sculptures at Sanchi.
2. many sculptures depicted at sanchi were not related to buddhism but rather it was from the popular traditions, for example the sculpture of Shalabhanjika, or of woman being consecrated by elephants, many believed it to be Maya, mother of buddha other looked as Gajalakshmi. It looks like people took both the meanings.
Thus, unless and untill we know about the popular traditions and one who made it, just using buddhist scriptures it is hard to understand the sculptures at sanchi.                            

Alvars are devoted to Lord Vishnu, Nayanars are devoted to Lord Shiva
Orginally there were 12 Alvars and 63 Nayanars
The book of Alvars is known as: Divya prabandham
The book of Nayanars is: Tevaram

The Vedic age itself is divided into the Early Vedic Period (c. 1500 – 1200 BCE) and Later Vedic Period (c. 1100 – 500 BCE).

To increase the agricultural production the system of jagirdars, zamindars and intermediaries was neglected..

Farmers were given land in subsidised rates and better irrigation techniques were provided to them..

The system of multi cropping was used..

Bernier felt that artisans had no incentive to improve the quality of their manufactures, since profits were appropriated by the state. Manufactures were, consequently everywhere in decline. At the same time, he conceded that vast quantities of the world's precious metals flowed into India, as manufactures were exported in exchange for gold and silver. He also noticed the existence of a prosperous merchant community, engaged in long-distance exchange.

Drainage system of Harappan cities-

(i) The drainage system was planned very carefully.

(ii) Road and streets were laid out along an approximate grid pattern intersecting at right angles.

(iii) Streets were laid out with drains and he drains were covered.

(iv) The houses were built along them. Domestic waste water had to flow into the street drains.

(v) The drains could be cleaned at regular intervals. The drains were made of burnt bricks

The drainage system of the cities was very well planned and developed. Drains were built alongside the road. Kitchens and bathrooms had drains which were connected to the street drain. The drains were covered with brick slabs which were cleaned from time to time.

kinfolk means members of the same family or relative.

1. Family varies in terms of numbers of members, their relationship with one another as well as the kinds of activities they share.
2. People belonging to the same family share food and other resources, and live, work and perform rituals together.
3. Families are usually parts of larger networks of people defined as relatives, or to use a more technical term, kinfolk.
4. While familial ties are often regarded as “natural” and based on blood, they are defined in many ways.
5. Historians also investigate and analyse attitudes towards family and kinship.

Al Biruni wrote in detail about the Indian religion, philosophy and the caste system. Al-Biruni described his work as "a help to those who want to discuss religious questions with them (the Hindus), and as a repertory of information to those who want to associate with them". The main objective of his writing was to give a glimpse of Indain religion and culture to his readers. He translated several Sanskrit works, including Patanjali’s work on grammar, into Arabic.

Ibn Battuta on the other hand did not pay attention to only Hindu religion and philosophy. He meticulously recorded his observations about new cultures, peoples, beliefs, landscape, trees, fruits, cities etc

Cunningham’s Confusion were:

(i) Cunningham’s main interest was in the archaeology of the Early Historic and later periods. Cunningham tried to place Harappan seals within the time-frame with which he was familiar.

(ii) He used the accounts left by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims who had visited the subcontinent between the fourth and seventh centuries CE to locate early settlement.

(iii) Cunningham also collected, documented and translated inscriptions found during his surveys. When he excavated sites he tended to recover artefacts that he thought had cultural value.

(iv) A site like Harappa which was not part of the itinerary of the Chinese pilgrims, did not fit very neatly within his framework of investigation. Cunningham did not realize how old Harappa artifacts were.

The Congress not accept the proposal to form a joint government with the Muslim League in the United Provinces because:

• The Congress had won an absolute majority in the province.
• The Muslim League supported landlordism whereas the Congress wanted to abolish it.

The Indus Valley Civilization (also known as the Harappan Civilization) was a Bronze Age society extending from modern northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India. Sir John Hubert Marshall led an excavation campaign in 1921-1922, during which he discovered the ruins of the city of Harappa. Harappa was the name of the first discovered site of Indus Valley Civilization. So civilization also came to be known as Harappan Civilization. Harappa was first discovered by Charles Masson in 1862.

Period:-

1. Early Harappan culture – Before 2600 BCE
2. Mature Harappa culture – 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE
3. Late Harappa culture – After 1900 BCE
4. Extent of Harappan civilisation:-
   1. Northern boundary- Manda Southern Boundary- Daimabad
   2. Eastern boundary- Alamgirpur Western boundary- Sutkagendor Characteristics of the Harappan Civilisation.

The people of the Indus Valley civilisation provided explicit attention to elaborate town planning:

1. The streets cut each other at right angles.
2. The main streets were over 800 metres long and 10 metres wide. They were also curved at the corners in order to make it easy for bullock carts to pass. The streets were generally paved with baked bricks.
3. Houses were built on both the sides of the street.
4. The city was generally divided into two parts - lower and upper (citadel or acropolis).
5. The upper part was built on a raised platform which protected people during floods. It consisted of buildings such as the Great Bath, Town Hall, the Great Granary and some temple-like structures.
6. The lower part was at a lower height but bigger in area. It had small buildings and houses of the common people.