The Vedic age itself is divided into the Early Vedic Period (c. 1500 – 1200 BCE) and Later Vedic Period (c. 1100 – 500 BCE).

To increase the agricultural production the system of jagirdars, zamindars and intermediaries was neglected..

Farmers were given land in subsidised rates and better irrigation techniques were provided to them..

The system of multi cropping was used..

Bernier felt that artisans had no incentive to improve the quality of their manufactures, since profits were appropriated by the state. Manufactures were, consequently everywhere in decline. At the same time, he conceded that vast quantities of the world's precious metals flowed into India, as manufactures were exported in exchange for gold and silver. He also noticed the existence of a prosperous merchant community, engaged in long-distance exchange.

Drainage system of Harappan cities-

(i) The drainage system was planned very carefully.

(ii) Road and streets were laid out along an approximate grid pattern intersecting at right angles.

(iii) Streets were laid out with drains and he drains were covered.

(iv) The houses were built along them. Domestic waste water had to flow into the street drains.

(v) The drains could be cleaned at regular intervals. The drains were made of burnt bricks

The drainage system of the cities was very well planned and developed. Drains were built alongside the road. Kitchens and bathrooms had drains which were connected to the street drain. The drains were covered with brick slabs which were cleaned from time to time.

kinfolk means members of the same family or relative.

1. Family varies in terms of numbers of members, their relationship with one another as well as the kinds of activities they share.
2. People belonging to the same family share food and other resources, and live, work and perform rituals together.
3. Families are usually parts of larger networks of people defined as relatives, or to use a more technical term, kinfolk.
4. While familial ties are often regarded as “natural” and based on blood, they are defined in many ways.
5. Historians also investigate and analyse attitudes towards family and kinship.

Al Biruni wrote in detail about the Indian religion, philosophy and the caste system. Al-Biruni described his work as "a help to those who want to discuss religious questions with them (the Hindus), and as a repertory of information to those who want to associate with them". The main objective of his writing was to give a glimpse of Indain religion and culture to his readers. He translated several Sanskrit works, including Patanjali’s work on grammar, into Arabic.

Ibn Battuta on the other hand did not pay attention to only Hindu religion and philosophy. He meticulously recorded his observations about new cultures, peoples, beliefs, landscape, trees, fruits, cities etc

Cunningham’s Confusion were:

(i) Cunningham’s main interest was in the archaeology of the Early Historic and later periods. Cunningham tried to place Harappan seals within the time-frame with which he was familiar.

(ii) He used the accounts left by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims who had visited the subcontinent between the fourth and seventh centuries CE to locate early settlement.

(iii) Cunningham also collected, documented and translated inscriptions found during his surveys. When he excavated sites he tended to recover artefacts that he thought had cultural value.

(iv) A site like Harappa which was not part of the itinerary of the Chinese pilgrims, did not fit very neatly within his framework of investigation. Cunningham did not realize how old Harappa artifacts were.

The Congress not accept the proposal to form a joint government with the Muslim League in the United Provinces because:

• The Congress had won an absolute majority in the province.
• The Muslim League supported landlordism whereas the Congress wanted to abolish it.

The Indus Valley Civilization (also known as the Harappan Civilization) was a Bronze Age society extending from modern northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India. Sir John Hubert Marshall led an excavation campaign in 1921-1922, during which he discovered the ruins of the city of Harappa. Harappa was the name of the first discovered site of Indus Valley Civilization. So civilization also came to be known as Harappan Civilization. Harappa was first discovered by Charles Masson in 1862.

Period:-

1. Early Harappan culture – Before 2600 BCE
2. Mature Harappa culture – 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE
3. Late Harappa culture – After 1900 BCE
4. Extent of Harappan civilisation:-
   1. Northern boundary- Manda Southern Boundary- Daimabad
   2. Eastern boundary- Alamgirpur Western boundary- Sutkagendor Characteristics of the Harappan Civilisation.

The people of the Indus Valley civilisation provided explicit attention to elaborate town planning:

1. The streets cut each other at right angles.
2. The main streets were over 800 metres long and 10 metres wide. They were also curved at the corners in order to make it easy for bullock carts to pass. The streets were generally paved with baked bricks.
3. Houses were built on both the sides of the street.
4. The city was generally divided into two parts - lower and upper (citadel or acropolis).
5. The upper part was built on a raised platform which protected people during floods. It consisted of buildings such as the Great Bath, Town Hall, the Great Granary and some temple-like structures.
6. The lower part was at a lower height but bigger in area. It had small buildings and houses of the common people. 

1. Sufism derives is inspiration from Islam. While the orthodox Muslims depend upon external conduct and blind observance of religious rituals, the Sufi saints seek inner purity.

2. According to Sufi saints, God is the beloved of the lover (‘Mashook”) i.e. the devotee and the devotee is eager to meet his beloved (God).

3. The Sufis think that love and devotion are the only means of reaching God.

4. Along with Prophet Muhammad, they also attach great importance to their ‘Murshid’ or ‘Pir’ (Guru).

5. Devotion is more important than fast (Roza) or prayer (Namaz)

6. Sufism does not believe in caste system.

7. Sufism emphasizes upon leading a simple life.

8. Sufi saints preached in Arabic, Persian and Urdu etc.

9. The Sufis were divided into 12 orders each under a mystic Sufi saint. Prominent Sufi Saints.

(i) The initial demands were very high, this was because it was felt that if the demand was fixed for all time to come.

(ii) The high demand was imposed in the 1790s, a time when the prices of agricultural produce were depressed.

(iii) The revenue was invariable, regardless of the harvest, and had to be paid punctually.

(iv)The Permanent Settlement initially limited the power of Zamindar to collect rent from the ryot and manage his Zamindari.

1. Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and archaeologists extrapolate from this that oxen were used for ploughing.

We get information about Indus Valley Civilisation from the archaeological things or evidences which were left behind by people of that age for example their houses, pots, ornaments, tools seals etc.

Features of Sufism:

• God is the beloved of the devotee.
• They don't believe in blind faiths in religious practices.
• They believe love and devotion are more important than Rosa or Namaz.
• They believe in dance music and poetry as a form of prayer and showing devotion to the beloved.