Rules of marriage:

(i) While sons were important for the continuity of the patrilineage, daughters were viewed rather differently within this frame work. They had no claims to the resources of the household.

(ii) At the same time, marrying them into families outside the kin was considered desirable.

(iii) The belief of Kanyadan, the gift of a daughter in marriage was an important religious duty of the father.

(iv) The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastra recognised as many as eight forms of marriage. Of these, the first four were considered as good while the remaining were condemned.

(i) While sons were important for the continuity of the patrilineage, daughters were viewed rather differently within this frame work. They had no claims to the resources of the household.
(ii) At the same time, marrying them into families outside the kin was considered desirable.
(iii) The belief of Kanyadan, the gift of a daughter in marriage was an important religious duty of the father.
(iv) The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastra recognised as many as eight forms of marriage. Of these, the first four were considered as good while the remaining were condemned.

(a)    According to local tradition, temple halls sheltered the monkey kingdom of Vali and Sugriva mentioned in the Ramayana. Other traditions suggest that Pampadevi, the local mother goddess did penance in these halls in order to marry Virupaksha, the guardian diety of the kingdom, also recognised as a form of Shiva.
(b)    Temple building in the region had a long history, going back to dynasties such as the Pallavas, Chalukyas, Hoysalas and Cholas. Rulers very often encouraged temple building as a means of associating themselves with the divine — often, the deity was explicity or implicity identified with the king. Temples also functioned as centres of learning.
(c)    It is likely that the very choice of the site of Vijayanagara was inspired by the existence of the shrines of Virupaksha and Pampadevi. In fact the Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of the god Virupaksha. All royal orders were signed “Shri Virupaksha”, usually in the Kannada script.
(d)    In terms of temple architecture, by this period certain new features were in evidence. These included structures of immense scale that must have been a mark of imperial authority, best exemplified by the raya gopurams or royal gateways that often dwarfed the towers on the central shrines, and signalled the presence of the temple from a great distance. They were also probably meant as reminders of the power of kings, able to command the resources, techniques and skills needed to construct these towering gateways. Other distinctive features include mandapas or pavilions and long, pillared corridors that often ran around the shrines within the temple complex.

1. This civilization is extended far beyond the Indus Valley. The main towns of Indus valley civilization were Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Kalibangan, Lothal.

2. The significant features of Indus Valley civilization are personal cleanliness, town planning, construction of burnt-brick houses, ceramics, casting, forging of metals, manufacturing of cotton and woolen textiles.

3. Mohenjo-Daro people had finest bath facilities, drainage system, and knowledge of personal hygiene.

4. They were equally conscious of plant medicine since there was occasional warfare.

5. The town planning and other characteristics indicate that a homogeneous indigenous culture developed.

The two methods are:
(i) The plough was used in the alluvial soil in Ganga and Kavery valley to increase production.
(ii) There was another method to increase production — irrigation through wells and tanks.

System of Land Grants:
i. Grants made to religious institutions

ii. Grants called agrahara grants were made to Brahmanas

iii. Samantas were also given land. Prabhavati Gupta – example of agrahara grant made by a woman is an exception
iv. Land grants were a strategy to extend agriculture and Brahmanical practices in new regions 

The sixth century BCE is often regarded as a major turning point in early Indian history. It is an era associated with early states, cities, the growing use of iron, the development of coinage, etc. It also witnessed the growth of diverse systems of thought, including Buddhism and Jainism.

In about two hundred years, Magadha became the most powerful Mahajanapada. Rivers like the Ganga and Son flowed through it which provided water, improved transport and helped make the land fertile. Also, some forested parts of Magadha provided:

• Animals like elephants – captured and trained for the army
• Wood for building houses, carts, and chariots.
• There were some iron ore mines in the region as well which helped in making tools and weapons.

There are many problems and obstacles connected to the work of epigraphists. Below, I will present some of them:

1. Extremely faint letter in the texts

2. Damaged inscription, often with missing letters. 

3. Linguistic problems regarding the semantics of words and differences in grammar on different stages of development of languages during which those text were created. 

4. Lack of context caused by the fact that most of the texts were lost and we cannot really know exactly how many of those texts were actually created - we can know only those that we've discovered.

5. Most of the things recorded in texts are related to some significant events in history of a place due to how pricey it was to create a text in the first place. We lack crucial information regarding how regular people lived in the past. 

6. Historians and Epigraphists are forced to constantly assess the statements made in inscriptions to judge whether they are true, plausible or exaggerated.

Answer : 
Kautilya ( Chanakya ) was a learned Brahmin of Taxshila, who later on became a prominent diplomat in the kingship of emperor Chandragupta Maurya. The ‘ Arthashastra ’ was written by Kautilya.

Most of the inscriptions referred a king as Piyadassi, meant 'pleasant to behold' and a few inscriptions mentioned the king as Asoka, one of the famous rulers known from Buddhist texts. 

In the 1830s James Prinsep, an officer in the mint of the East India Company, deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi, two scripts used in the earliest inscriptions and coins. He found that most of these mentioned a king referred to as Piyadassi – meaning “pleasant to behold”.

The Harappan people were literate and used the Dravidian language. ... The similarities in plan and construction between Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa indicate that they were part of a unified government with extreme organization. Both cities were constructed of the same type and shape of bricks. The Indus Valley Civilization is often separated into three phases: the Early Harappan Phase from 3300 to 2600 BCE, the Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE, and the Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1300 BCE.

The Indus Valley people had trade relations with Mesopotamia. The trade relationship during the later 3rd millennium was a direct one , ship from Meluhha docked in Mesopotamian ports , some Meluhhans settled in Sumer, and there is a seal belonging to a Mesopotamian whose job it was to act as an interpreter of the Meluhhan language. On the other hand , people from Mesopotamia reached the Indus , so it is clear that the Harappans conducted the trade between two civilizations.

A typologist first classifies artifacts in terms of attributes, for example, raw material, color and size, then classifies them using mutually exclusive characteristics, called attribute states. Thus, ceramic pots could be sorted on the basis of shape, for example, into groups of bowls, jars, and plates. "Artefact" is the British noun that has the same meaning with "artifact", its American spelling. Apart from this slight difference, both words refer to an old object with special importance for history.

Artefacts are objects that are made by human beings.  The term can refer to a wide range of things : tools, paintings, sculpture, engravings.

The artefacts have been classified into two categories, Utilitarian and Luxurious. Objects of daily uses and objects made of ordinary materials made of clay or stone come under utilitarian category. Ordinary articles consisted of querns, pottery, flesh-rubbers and needles. These have been found distributed throughout settlements.

City is divided in two regions small higher area and lower large area. Lower large residential area has bricks build houses with windows, doors and court yard, staircase, roofs, kitchens and bathrooms. The houses are multiple stored buildings. They have well constructed drainage system. The principal towns of Indus valley civilization were Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Kalibangan, Lothal. The important characteristic of Indus valley civilization is cleanliness, town outlining, the architecture of burnt-brick dwellings, ceramics, molding, forging of metals, construction of cotton and woolen textiles.

The domestic architecture of the Harappan household was seen through the residential buildings in the Mohenjodaro. These buildings had a courtyard in the centre, used for activities like cooking and weaving especially in the dry weather. The courtyard was surrounded by rooms and no windows were seen in the rooms at the ground floor. The courtyard wasn’t visible from the main entrance. Every house had a bathroom made of bricks and drains connecting to the outside drains. Some house had stairs for accessing the second floor and some had wells made in the room.

Seals were utilized to make a fixing, or positive engraving while doing trade. Sealings were utilized as a part of antiquated circumstances for exchange. They would be made on earthenware production or the mud labels used to seal the rope around bundles of goods.

A huge number of seals were found from the locales, typically made of steatite, and periodically of agate, chert, copper, faience and earthenware, with excellent figures of creatures, for example, unicorn bull, rhinoceros, tiger, elephant, buffalo, goat, wild ox, and so on.

The reason these seals existed was mostly for trade and business.

They were additionally utilized as ornaments, carried on the people of their proprietors, maybe as present day personality cards.

Standard Harappan seal was 2 x 2 square inches.

Each seal is engraved in a pictographic content which is yet to be deciphered.

• The seal depicts a human figure seated cross legged.
• Two antelopes (deer) are shown below the seat (nearby his feet).
• An elephant and a tiger are depicted to the right side of the figure, while on the left a rhinoceros and a buffalo are seen.
• The figure has a three horned head.
• A few seals were additionally been found in Gold and Ivory.

Seals were used to make a sealing, or positive imprint, like this modern resin one made from the original seal. Sealings were used in ancient times for trade. They would be made on ceramics or the clay tags used to seal the rope around bundles of goods. The seals give us useful information about the civilization of Indus valley. ... It is said that these seals were used by different associations or merchants for stamping purposes. They were also worn round the neck or the arm. The seals show the culture and civilization of the Indus Valley people.

There are many reasons that are being put forward by scholars regarding the decline of the Harappan civilization,

1. climatic change, deforestation, excessive floods, the shifting and/or drying up of rivers, to overuse of the landscape. Although some of these “causes” may hold for certain settlements, but they do not explain the collapse of the entire civilisation.

2. Invasion of Aryans- It is believed by some scholars that invasion of aryan lead to the decline of Harappan civilization however this hypothesis has been refuted.

3. End of an unifying element- It is believed that a strong unifying element perhaps came to an end because we see disappearance of seals, scripts, weight etc.

Regular floods destroyed the area. Aryan invaders killed people and destroyed the Indus Valley Civilization. ... Thus it took hundred of years again for India to have beautiful cities like Mohen-jo-daro and Harappa. The end was partly caused by changing river patterns. The Indus Valley civilization began to decline between 1900 and 1800 BCE. Most of the cities disappeared or were abandoned. Archaeologists do not know why this happened.

Between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, Magadha (in present-day Bihar) became the most powerful mahajanapada. Modern historians explain this development in a variety of ways:

• Magadha was a region where agriculture was especially productive.
• Besides, iron mines (in present-day Jharkhand ) were accessible and provided resources for tools and weapons.
• Elephants, an important component of the army, were found in forests in the region.
• Also, the Ganga and its tributaries provided a means of cheap and convenient communication.

However, early Buddhist and Jaina writers who wrote about Magadha attributed its power to the policies of individuals, ruthlessly ambitious kings of whom Bimbisara, Ajatashatru and Mahapadma Nanda are the best known, and their minister, who helped implement their policies.

The two capitals, i.e. Rajagriha (Rajgir) and Pataliputra (Patna) of Magadha had their own advantages. Rajagaha was a fortified settlement, located amongst hill, thus, was not easily captured. Pataliputra was easily communicable through the Ganga and its tributaries.

Between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, Magadha (in present-day Bihar) became the most powerful mahajanapada. Modern historians explain this development in a variety of ways:

• Magadha was a region where agriculture was especially productive.
• Besides, iron mines (in present-day Jharkhand ) were accessible and provided resources for tools and weapons.
• Elephants, an important component of the army, were found in forests in the region.
• The Ganga and its tributaries provided a means of cheap and convenient communication.

However, early Buddhist and Jaina writers who wrote about Magadha attributed its power to the policies of individuals, ruthlessly ambitious kings of whom Bimbisara, Ajatashatru and Mahapadma Nanda are the best known, and their minister, who helped implement their policies.

The two capitals, i.e. Rajagriha (Rajgir) and Pataliputra (Patna) of Magadha had their own advantages. Rajagaha was a fortified settlement, located amongst hill, thus, was not easily captured. Pataliputra was easily communicable through the Ganga and its tributaries.

The Indus civilisation is also known as the Harappan Civilisation, after its type site, Harappa, the first of its sites to be excavated early in the 20th century in what was then the Punjab province of British India and now is Pakistan.

(i) It was a region where agriculture was especially productive.
(ii) Besides, iron mines (in present-day Jharkhand), were accessible and provided resources for tools and weapons.
(iii) Elephants, an important component of the army, were found in forest in the region.
(iv) Moreover, the Ganga and its tributaries provided a means of cheap and convenient communication.

It cannot be denied that there did exist agriculture during Harappan civilization because we have the evidence of grains. Through evidences archaeologist have come out with ideas regarding the technologies adopted by the Harappans.

1. Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and archaeologists extrapolate from this that oxen were used for ploughing.

2. Images of terracotta plough have been found and evidences of ploughed field has been found at Kalibangan. Thus we can fairly assume that plogh was used.

3. There are evidence of copper tools, stone blades tools, however archaeologist are not sure what kind of tools were used for agriculture.

4. As most of the sites were located semi arid lands it is postulated that irrigation were required. Hence there are evidences of canals at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan

The Harappans ate a wide range of plant and animal products, including fish. Archaeologists have been able to reconstruct dietary practices from finds of charred grains and seeds. These are studied by archaeo-botanists, who are specialists in ancient plant remains. Grains found at Harappan sites include wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea and sesame. Millets are found from sites in Gujarat. Finds o rice are relatively rare.

Archaeologists reconstruct the past by a study of the artefacts which they unearth such as seals, coins, remains of buildings, clay, pots or burnt grains. Archaeologist reconstruct the past in the following ways:

• Archaeologists excavate the ancient sites. They try to find about the life of the people by studying various unearthed artefacts such as remains of houses, pots, jewellery, coins, agricultural tools, weighs etc.
• Zooarchaeologists study the animal bones and try to find out if these animals were domesticated. For example, Animal bones found at Harappan sites include those of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig. It show us that the Harappans were aware of these animal.
• Archaeologists try to find about the prevalence of agriculture by finding the remains of burnt grains. Some ways by which they try to find about the agricultural practices is by studying seals and terracotta sculptures. For example, representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and archaeologists extrapolate from this that oxen were used for ploughing.
• Archaeologists also try to find about social or economic differences amongst people in the past by studying burial sites. When graves contain pottery and ornaments, it indicate that people during that time believed in afterlife.
• Archaeologists try to look for raw material such as stone nodules, whole shells, copper ore; tools; unfinished objects; rejects and waste materials to identify the centres of craft production.
• Religious beliefs of the people can be reconstructed based on the study of seals and coins. In the Harappan Civilisation, some seals depicted rituals while some seals had plat motifs on them indicating nature worship.

Archaeologists reconstruct the past in the following manners:

(i) They excavate the ancient sites related with culture or civilisation. They find out remains from the site such as seal, material remains of houses, buildings, pots, ornaments, tools, coins, weights, measurements and toys etc.

(ii) Sometimes they find skull a, tones, teeth, jaws, and some articles kept with the bodies. Archaeologists take help of botanists, who are specialists in ancient plant remains. They also study the animal bones found at different sites with the help of zoologist.

(iii) Archaeologists try to identify the tools and implements used for cultivation and harvesting. They try to find out traces of means of irrigation such as wells, canals, tanks etc.

(iv) They used present day analogies to try and understand what ancient artefact were used for. Sometimes they compare the ancient findings with present day articles.

(v) Archaeologists observe the different layers of sites and try to find out different things which give pictures of socio-economic conditions, religions and cultural life of the past people in different times.

(vi) In order to identify centres of craft production, archaeologists usually look for the following: raw material such as stone needles, shells, copper ore; tools; unfinished objects; rejects and waste material. In fact, waste is one of the best indicators of craft work. For instance, if shell or stone is cut to make objects, then pieces of these materials will be discarded as waste at the place of production.

(vii) Sometimes, archaeologists have to take recourse to indirect evidence. For instance, though there are traces of cotton at some Harappan sites, to find out about clothing we have to depend on indirect evidence including depictions in sculpture.

(viii) Archaeologists have to develop frames of reference. We have seen that the first Harappan seal that was found could not be understood till archaeologists had a context in which to place it - both in terms of the cultural sequence in which it was found, and in terms of a comparison with finds in Mesopotamia.

(ix) Attempts have also been made to reconstruct religious beliefs and practices by examining seals, some of which seem to depict ritual scenes. Others, with plant motifs, are thought to indicate nature worship. Some animals - such as the one-horned animal, often called the “unicorn” - depicted on seals seem to be mythical, composite creatures. In some seals, a figure shown seated cross-legged in a “yogic” posture, sometimes surrounded by animals, has been regarded as a depiction of “proto-Shiva”, that is, an early form of one of the major deities of Hinduism. Besides, conical stone objects have been classified as lingas.

• The Indus valley civilisation is also called the Harappan culture.
• Archaeologists use the term "culture" for a group of objects, distinctive in style, that are usually  found together within a specific geographical area and period of time.
• In the case of the Harappan culture, these distinctive objects include seals, beads, weights, stone blades and even baked bricks.
• These objects were found from areas as far apart as Afghanistan, Jammu, Baluchistan (Pakistan) and Gujarat.
• Named after Harappa, the first site where this unique culture was discovered, the civilisation is dated between c. 2600 and 1900 BCE. There were earlier and later cultures, often called Early Harappan and Late Harappan, in the same area.
• The Harappan civilisation is sometimes called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it from these cultures.
• In 1924, John Marshall, Director-General of the ASI, announced the discovery of a new civilisation in the Indus valley to the world.

he Mughal imperial household consisted mainly of the king and the harem. The Mughal household consisted of emperor’s wives and concubines, his near and distant relatives such as mother, sister, foster mother, daughters-in-law and aunts. Female servants and slaves served the members of imperial households.

In the imperial household, a distinction was maintained between wives who belonged to royal and aristocratic families and other wives (known as agha) who did not belong to a royal family. Concubines occupied the lowest position in the hierarchy of females closely associated to royalty.

The imperial household had numerous male and female slaves who performed different tasks according to their skills. Slave eunuchs were appointed as guards, servants and even as agents for Mughal women who were interested in trading. Many elderly Mughal women also played an important role in resolving family conflicts. In the course of time, many Mughal women who amassed wealth also began to commission buildings and gardens. Jahanara commissioned many buildings in Shahjahanabad, the capital of Shahjahan.

Following are the main features of Bhakti:

• This was the result of people’s struggle to free the religion from control of the priests and varna boundaries.
• A person was free to choose his ways and means to worship a god.
• Pure devotion to a deity was most important aspect.
• Any object could be used as a symbol of the god.