Chronology is the science of arranging events in their order of occurrence in time. Consider, for example, the use of a timeline or sequence of events. It is also "the determination of the actual temporal sequence of past events". Chronology is a part of periodization.

Numismatics is the study of coins, including visual elements such as scripts and images, metallurgical analysis and the contexts in which they have been found.
The study of coins has helped the numismatists to reconstruct the possible commercial networks.

Epigraphy refrs to the study and interpretation inscriptions. It also include the study of ancient languages and scripts, which can be found in the form of inscriptions, scriptures and writings in various forms, like clay tablets, copper plates, palm leaves, etc. 

(i)Drawing the likeness of anything is called taswir. His Majesty from his earliest youth, has shown a great predilection for this art, and gives it every encouragement, as he looks upon it as a means both of study and amusement.
(ii)A very large number of painters set to work.
(iii)Each week, several supervisors and clerks of the imperial workshop submit before the emperor the work done by each artist, and his Majesty gives a reward.
(iv)Paintings served not only to enhance the beauty of a book, but were believed to possess special powers of communicating ideas about the kingdom and the power of kings in ways that the written medium could not.
(v)The historian Abu’l Fazl described painting as a ‘magical art’ in his view it had the power to make inanimate objects look as if they possessed life.

Population composition refers to the structure of the population. The composition of the population helps us know how many are males or females, which age group they belong to, how educated they are, what type of occupations they are employed in and what their income levels and health conditions are. An interesting way of studying the population composition of a country is by looking at the population pyramid, also called an age-*** pyramid.

Age structure represents the number of people of different age groups.

(i)This is an important indicator of population composition, since a large size of population in the age group of 15- 59 indicates a large working population.
 

(ii)A greater proportion of population above 60 years represents an ageing population which requires more expenditure on health care facilities.

(iii)Similarly high proportion of young population would mean that the region has a high birth rate and the population is youthful.

Rules of marriage:

(i) While sons were important for the continuity of the patrilineage, daughters were viewed rather differently within this frame work. They had no claims to the resources of the household.

(ii) At the same time, marrying them into families outside the kin was considered desirable.

(iii) The belief of Kanyadan, the gift of a daughter in marriage was an important religious duty of the father.

(iv) The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastra recognised as many as eight forms of marriage. Of these, the first four were considered as good while the remaining were condemned.

(i) While sons were important for the continuity of the patrilineage, daughters were viewed rather differently within this frame work. They had no claims to the resources of the household.
(ii) At the same time, marrying them into families outside the kin was considered desirable.
(iii) The belief of Kanyadan, the gift of a daughter in marriage was an important religious duty of the father.
(iv) The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastra recognised as many as eight forms of marriage. Of these, the first four were considered as good while the remaining were condemned.

(a)    According to local tradition, temple halls sheltered the monkey kingdom of Vali and Sugriva mentioned in the Ramayana. Other traditions suggest that Pampadevi, the local mother goddess did penance in these halls in order to marry Virupaksha, the guardian diety of the kingdom, also recognised as a form of Shiva.
(b)    Temple building in the region had a long history, going back to dynasties such as the Pallavas, Chalukyas, Hoysalas and Cholas. Rulers very often encouraged temple building as a means of associating themselves with the divine — often, the deity was explicity or implicity identified with the king. Temples also functioned as centres of learning.
(c)    It is likely that the very choice of the site of Vijayanagara was inspired by the existence of the shrines of Virupaksha and Pampadevi. In fact the Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of the god Virupaksha. All royal orders were signed “Shri Virupaksha”, usually in the Kannada script.
(d)    In terms of temple architecture, by this period certain new features were in evidence. These included structures of immense scale that must have been a mark of imperial authority, best exemplified by the raya gopurams or royal gateways that often dwarfed the towers on the central shrines, and signalled the presence of the temple from a great distance. They were also probably meant as reminders of the power of kings, able to command the resources, techniques and skills needed to construct these towering gateways. Other distinctive features include mandapas or pavilions and long, pillared corridors that often ran around the shrines within the temple complex.

1. This civilization is extended far beyond the Indus Valley. The main towns of Indus valley civilization were Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Kalibangan, Lothal.

2. The significant features of Indus Valley civilization are personal cleanliness, town planning, construction of burnt-brick houses, ceramics, casting, forging of metals, manufacturing of cotton and woolen textiles.

3. Mohenjo-Daro people had finest bath facilities, drainage system, and knowledge of personal hygiene.

4. They were equally conscious of plant medicine since there was occasional warfare.

5. The town planning and other characteristics indicate that a homogeneous indigenous culture developed.

The two methods are:
(i) The plough was used in the alluvial soil in Ganga and Kavery valley to increase production.
(ii) There was another method to increase production — irrigation through wells and tanks.

System of Land Grants:
i. Grants made to religious institutions

ii. Grants called agrahara grants were made to Brahmanas

iii. Samantas were also given land. Prabhavati Gupta – example of agrahara grant made by a woman is an exception
iv. Land grants were a strategy to extend agriculture and Brahmanical practices in new regions 

The sixth century BCE is often regarded as a major turning point in early Indian history. It is an era associated with early states, cities, the growing use of iron, the development of coinage, etc. It also witnessed the growth of diverse systems of thought, including Buddhism and Jainism.

In about two hundred years, Magadha became the most powerful Mahajanapada. Rivers like the Ganga and Son flowed through it which provided water, improved transport and helped make the land fertile. Also, some forested parts of Magadha provided:

• Animals like elephants – captured and trained for the army
• Wood for building houses, carts, and chariots.
• There were some iron ore mines in the region as well which helped in making tools and weapons.