There are many causes that made Al-Biruni visit in India. These are:

• Al-Biruni arrived in Ghazni as a hostage by Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni. It was the place where he developed an interest for India.
• When the Punjab became a part of the Ghaznavid Empire, Al-Biruni travelled widely in the Punjab and parts of northern India.
• Al-Briuni spent years in the Company of Brahmana priests and scholars, learning Sanskrit and studying religious and philosophical texts. He read the Vedas, the Puranas, the Bhagavad Gita, the works of Patanjali, the Manusmriti, etc to understand Indian society properly.

• In the 6th century BCE sixteen big kingdoms known as Mahajanapadas came into existence.
• Among these sixteen Mahajanapadas were-Magadha, Koshala, Vatsa and Avant whichwere the most powerful. .
• In the 5th century BCE, the powerful Mahajanapadas turned into powerful empires.

Kolkata

Kalighat is a locality of Kolkata, in Kolkata district, West Bengal, India. One of the oldest neighbourhoods in South Kolkata, Kalighat is also densely populated — with a history of cultural intermingling with the various foreign incursions into the area over time.

Limitations of inscriptional evidence are:

Technical Limitations: Sometimes letters are very faintly engraved and thus doubts arise for inscriptions may be damaged or letters missing.

Damaged or Missing Letters: Sometimes important letters are damaged or missing in the inscription. It makes the work for epigraphists more difficult.

Lack of Clarity: It is not always easy to be sure about the exact meaning of the words used in the inscriptions, some of which may be specific to a particular place or time. So, scholars are constantly debating on alternative ways to read inscriptions.

Undeciphered Inscriptions: Thousands of inscriptions have been discovered, but not all have been deciphered, published and translated. Many inscriptions were destroyed and what we have today’ probably a fraction of it.

Non-relevance of Inscriptions: Inscriptions were composed in praise of kings and patrons in general. Not everything that is economically or politically important was recorded in the inscriptions, e.g. routine agricultural practice, the joys and sorrow of common man were not mentioned in the inscriptions. Thus, it is difficult for the epigraphists to give the complete picture of a society by relying on inscriptions only.

The stupa at Amaravati was one of the largest and the most significant among the Buddhist stupas. The stupa at Sanchi survived while Amaravati did not. Ther reasons are:

• It is said that the stupa at Amaravati was discovered sometime earlier than the one at Sanchi.
• Perhaps, the scholars were not aware of the significance of preserving the archaeological remains at the site where they were originally found.
• The Sanchi stupa Was discovered in the year 1818. At that time, three of its four gateways were still standing, the fourth was lying on the spot and the mound was in good condition.

But from the Amaravati, several pieces of sculptures were already used by the British administration in London to decorate the gardens. There was an insignificant little mound and was totally denuded of its former glory.

a n s w e r :

In 1854, Walter Elliot, the commissioner  of Guntur  visited Amaravati and collected several sculpture panels and took them away to Madras. These came to be called the Elliot marbles after him.

The stupa (a Sanskrit word meaning a heap) originated as a simple semi-circular mound of earth, later called the anda. Gradually it evolved into a more complex structure, balancing round and square shapes. 

<font font-family="Cambria">There are several kinds of stupas, round and tall, big and small, and these have certain common features:</font>

<font font-family="Cambria">There is a small box placed at the centre or heart of the stupa which may contain bodily remains (such as teeth, bone or ashes) of the Buddha or his followers, </font><font font-family="Cambria">or things they used, as well as precious stones and coins.</font><font font-family="Cambria">The box known as relic casket was covered with earth.</font><font font-family="Cambria">Later, a layer of mud brick or baked brick was added on top and then the dome-like structure was sometimes covered with carved stone slabs.</font><font font-family="Cambria">Often, a path, known as the pradakshina patha, was laid around the stupa, which was surrounded with railings.</font>

Following were the conditions of the people living in rural areas from c. 600 BCE to 600 CE:

SOCIAL CONDITIONS

• The society was patriarchal in nature with rigid social stratification. This meant that only sons could claim the resources of their fathers when the latter died.

• Women had to submit to their fathers, husbands and sons. They do not have the right to own property. They only possessed the dowry that they brought to the marriage.

• Exogamy was practised. This means that women were married outside the kin.

• People were classified in terms of gotras. Women gave up their father’s gotra upon marriage and adopted that of their husband’s. Also, the members of the same gotra were not allowed to marry.

• The society was hierarchically organized along with the ideal “occupations” of four categories wherein Brahamans occupied the top position. They studied and taught Vedas. They were followed by Kshatriyas who were warriors and administered justice, Vaishyas who were engaged in business and trade and finally Shudras which occupies the lowest place in society and served the higher Varnas. The caste system was rigid.

ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

• The use of iron ploughshare led to an increase in agricultural productivity. Irrigation facilities such as well, tanks and canals raised agricultural production.

• The communication system was developed which led to the economic growth of the empire.

• Land and river routes crisscrossed the subcontinent and extended in various directions. This facilitated the growth of trade.

• Goods such as salt, cloth, grain were exchanged. Spices were demanded in the Roman Empire. They were transported across the Arabian Sea to the Mediterranean.

• Exchanges were facilitated by the introduction of coinage. Silver and copper coins made exchange easy.

“Ritual” and “spiritual” are two very different words, not only in their meanings, but they have almost polar opposite implications. Spirituality has nothing to do with any single religion or belief. It is a person’s very own, individual conviction of something he believes in, and rituals are rites or some kind of discipline that is followed by people belonging to different religions and different beliefs. Rituals are not just referred to in the context of religion. They can be any kind of routine one follows like someone’s morning ritual.

Ashoka

When it comes to rulers and remarkable reforms, Emperor Ashoka who was a great warrior, ruler, reformer, philosopher and also a great follower of Buddha. Ashoka was a mighty ruler who fought many wars, for the expansion of his kingdom. It was the bloodshed in the war of Kalinga that made him took up Buddhism.

• Ashoka’s reforms such as efficient civil services, fair land taxation, and rules made for the protection of laws reveal his administrative brilliance.

• The Pillars of Ashoka which were sculpted with 33 inscriptions depicting the edicts of Ashoka, still remained as symbols of his commitment towards dharma.

• He had secret messengers who used to report him about the needs of the people.

• Ashoka also built safe roads, planted trees on both sides of the roads, built rest houses for travelers, dug wells and established hospitals and schools.

• He encouraged and controlled foreign trade and boosted agriculture. He improved irrigation and drainage systems.

• Ashoka made great reforms that helped farmers a lot. He sanctioned loans to the farmers from state and helped them cultivate well. If a farmer was able to cultivate certain land for five years continuously, that farmer was made the owner of that land he cultivated. This was implemented for several years after Ashoka.

Akbar

Akbar is another powerful ruler who is mentioned as Akbar the great. The Mughal empire was tripled in size and wealth in Akbar’s reign. He created a powerful military system and implemented effective economic, political and social reforms.

Though he was a Muslim emperor, his religious tolerance was appreciable that he gave equal opportunities to everyone, by encouraging the merit in high civil and military posts.

• His military reforms included the improvements of cannons, fortifications and the use of elephants in warfare, the introduction of Matchlocks and wide usage of Gunpowder.

• He introduced the levels of administration in the revenue department regarding the collection of taxes and spending systematically, organized the judiciary department by appointing personnel, who also had the responsibility of protecting the religious beliefs and practices.

• He even encouraged foreign trade, providing security for transactions and levied low customs duties.

• Akbar had not only encouraged religious tolerance but respected them. He used to celebrate Diwali and other prominent Hindu festivals and allowed priests to bless him.

• He encouraged the custom of wearing Rakhi. Akbar renounced beef and cow slaughter and banned meat on certain auspicious days.

• Akbar also married Jodha, the Hindu lady, besides having multiple Muslim wives and set himself as an example for religious tolerance. He never forced her to change her religion and also encouraged the people in his kingdom practice their religion peacefully.

• As far as his social reforms are concerned, Akbar promoted cultural integration making it a liberal state.

• He introduced several social reforms such as the prohibition of Sati, legalizing widow remarriage and kept a bar on the age for getting marriage by discouraging child marriages.

Prashastis are special kind of inscriptions and is a Sanskrit word which means “in praise for”. Prashastis are glowing praises of kings and rulers, and were written by the poets of that time.

A famous Prashasti, engraved on the Ashokan pillar in Allahabad, conveys significant information about king Samudragupta of the Gupta Empire, written by Samudragipta’s court poet Harishena. Harishena wrote about the battles won by King Samudragupta and his genealogy and policies.

In Purusha Sukta hymn in Rig veda it is mentioned how different caste came into existence and it is used frequently to prove the supremacy of the brahmanas in the fourfold caste system. It is one of the way how Brahmanas tried to put rest of the society under its wings, other was through the use rulers. Many a time these two groups have joined hands in history to rule the masses.
There could be many reasons for why Brahmanas did that or still does that. One basic reason could be through quoting sacreds hymn gives it a sacred meaning. It renders fear in the heart of the people, the notion of going to hell and heaven if one breaks the sacred code, thus making it easier to rule upn the ignorant masses.

Secondly by quoting the hymn it justifies what brahmanas do, it gives their activities a religious legitimacy. And it is the easiest way to do. Relgion is a tool that is easily understandable and something that to people make sense because it stops someone from questioning.

Thus we can see through above reason why Brahmanas would quote hymns to justify their position in the society.

In Purusha Sukta hymn in Rig veda it is mentioned how different caste came into existence and it is used frequently to prove the supremacy of the brahmanas in the fourfold caste system. It is one of the way how Brahmanas tried to put rest of the society under its wings, other was through the use rulers. Many a time these two groups have joined hands in history to rule the masses.
There could be many reasons for why Brahmanas did that or still does that. One basic reason could be through quoting sacreds hymn gives it a sacred meaning. It renders fear in the heart of the people, the notion of going to hell and heaven if one breaks the sacred code, thus making it easier to rule upn the ignorant masses.

Secondly by quoting the hymn it justifies what brahmanas do, it gives their activities a religious legitimacy. And it is the easiest way to do. Relgion is a tool that is easily understandable and something that to people make sense because it stops someone from questioning.

Thus we can see through above reason why Brahmanas would quote hymns to justify their position in the society.

Features of the Harappan culture:

1. Urban Civilisation: The sight of the towns of Mohenjodaro and Harappa reflect the supremacy of the then architecture and town planning. There were wide roads ranging from 9 to 34 feet in width. The horizontal roads cut the vertical ones on right angles. The towns had brick houses, both big and small ones. There was provision of cross ventilation and sufficient lighting. The sight of drains and huge dustbins outside the houses revealed that there must have been some local institution to manage sanitation and such other activities smoothly.

2. Architecture: There were varieties of building that were unearthed:

(i) Buildings for the dwelling of the citizens.

(ii) Buildings for public purposes.

(iii) Public fire places.

3. The Great Bath: The Great Bath, discovered during excavations was 39 feet in length, 23 feet in width and 8 feet in depth.

Verandahs and rooms were constructed around it. There was a provision of filling the bath with water and emptying it. There was a well closely which might have been serving as the source of filling fresh water into the bath. This structure is an excellent symbol of the Indus Valley Civilisation.

4. Food: The people of Indus Valley ate barley, wheat, fruit and flesh also.

5. Clothes: The available needles and spinning and weaving tools and button show that the people knew spinning and weaving. Both the cotton and woollen clothes were worn. The people wore coloured clothes. There was a close similarity in the clothes of men and women-folk.

6. Ornaments: Both the men and the women wore ornaments. The chief ornaments used to be armlets, necklace, ear-rings, metal ring (bangle), belt etc.

7. Cosmetics: Hair used to be decorated in many forms. Brass combs, mirrors, piece of decoration made of ivory and a type of colour used to redden the lips like lipstick too have been found.

8. Amusements: The people used to utilise their time in hunting, playing chess, music, dance, drawing and painting, taming birds and catching fish. These formed the sources of their recreation.

9. Art and craft: Patterns of fine drawing are available on the seals of the times. The clay carts and toys too are fine specimen of the grand art.

10. Religion: There are various hypothesis regarding religion but we still do not know, there are indication that they could have worshipped nature, mother goddess, proto shiva etc.

Social Condition:
(i)    Respect for Brahmans : The Brahmanas were greatly respected in the state of Vijayanagara. They attained a supreme position in the state. Even when they committed a crime, they were not given the punishment of death. They led a pious life. They were vegetarian. They never touched meat and wine. They were an ideal and role model for others.
(ii)    Place of Women : The women were given a lot of respect in Vijayanagara. They could get even higher education. They had no purdah system. They were also educated in warfare and fine arts.
(iii)    Several malpractices were existed : The society of Vijayanagara had many malpractices. The animals were sacrificed to please gods and goddesses. The practice of sati was very popular in the society. Even the Telugu women were buried alive after the deaths of their husbands. Besides there was an evil of prostitution. Deva Raya II had twelve thousand queens. He had married three thousand queens on the condition that they would perform sati after his death.
Economic Condition : The economic condition of Vijayanagara was prosperous. Its land was fertile. So there was enough trading activity. The rulers of Vijayanagara had good relations with the Portuguese. There was a trading of Arabian horses. The sea-coasts of Vijayanagara had many ports. Calicut was a famous sea-port during those days. It was used to trade with Burma, China,. Iran, Arabia, Portugal and South Africa. It was used to export cloth, rice, sugar, iron and spices. It imported horses, elephants, copper, silk and diamond jewellery. The merchants had established their trade centres. There was a currency of gold and silver. It facilitated exchange of goods. Besides the trade, there was a great progress in industry and agriculture. The main occupation of the people was weaving cloth, mining of minerals and to prepare metal goods.

In the 1940s, the Indian National Congress and the Muslim league were the two largest political parties in British India. The Muslim League wanted British India to be partitioned into a Hindu-majority India and a Muslim-majority Pakistan. The Congress outrightly rejected this proposal . The Muslim League planned a general strike on 16th August terming it as Direct Action Day, to protest this rejection and assert its demand for a separate Muslim homeland. This day transformed into the “Great Calcutta Killing”. The Direct Action Day resulted into riots and several hundreads of people were killed in the following days. Many places in Bengal witnessed Hindu Muslim riots culminating in deaths of thousands of people and loss of property. 

In the 1940s, the Indian National Congress and the Muslim league were the two largest political parties in British India. The Muslim League wanted British India to be partitioned into a Hindu-majority India and a Muslim-majority Pakistan. The Congress outrightly rejected this proposal . The Muslim League planned a general strike on 16th August terming it as Direct Action Day, to protest this rejection and assert its demand for a separate Muslim homeland. This day transformed into the “Great Calcutta Killing”. The Direct Action Day resulted into riots and several hundreads of people were killed in the following days. Many places in Bengal witnessed Hindu Muslim riots culminating in deaths of thousands of people and loss of property. 

The five main principles of Islam are

1. There is only one God and Allah is his name.
2. Muslims must say their prayers (Namaz) five times in a day.
3. Muslims must fast from dawn to dusk during the holy month of Ramzan.
4. The followers of Islam should give a small portion of their wealth to the poor and needy in charity. This custom is known as zakat.
5. Muslims should make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their lifetime.