An ordinary right generally imposes a corresponding duty on another individual (and, state in some cases) but a fundamental right is a right which an individual possess against the state.Fundamental rights are protected against invasion by the executive, legislature and the judiciary. All fundamental rights are limitations on legislative power. Laws and executive actions which abridge or are in conflict with such rights are void and ineffective.Our constitution guarantees the right to move the Supreme Court for the enforcement of fundamental rights. Thus the remedy itself is a fundamental right. This distinguishes it from other rights.The Supreme Court is the guardian of fundamental rights.
Further, all constitution rights not fundamental rights e.g. right not to be subjected to taxation without authority of law (art. 265), right to property (art. 300a), and freedom of trade (art. 301). A fundamental right cannot be waived. An ordinary legal right can be waived by an individual

Judicuary ang legislative

Affirmative action is based on the idea that it is not sufficient to establish formal equality by law. When we wish to eliminate inequalities that are deeply rooted, it is necessary to take some more positive measures to minimise and eliminate entrenched forms of social inequalities. Most policies of affirmative action are thus designed to correct the cumulative effect of past inequalities.

Special assistance in the form of affirmative action is expected to be a temporary or time-bound measure. The assumption is that special consideration will enable these communities to overcome the existing disadvantages and then compete with others on equal terms. Although policies of affirmative action are supported for making the society more equal, many theorists argue against them. They question whether treating people differently can ever lead to greater equality.

The fact is that in the spheres of education and health care India has done far less for its deprived population than what is their due. Inequalities in school education are glaring. Many poor children in rural areas or urban slums have little chance of attending schools. If they do get the chance, their schools have little to offer that would be comparable to the facilities available in elite schools. The inequalities with which children enter school tend to continue to hamper their chances to improve their qualifications or get good jobs. These students face hurdles in gaining admission to elite professional courses because they lack the means to pay for special coaching. The fees for professional courses also may be prohibitively high. Consequently, they cannot compete on equal terms with the more privileged sections.

DPSP are those guidelines/principles that the state should keep in mind while formulating law and X policies of the country.

Directive principles of state policy

DPSP are those guidelines/principles that the state should keep in mind while formulating law and X policies of the country. It is non-justiciable you can't go to a court and file a petition against the government and force them to implement any rule of DPSP ) in nature. The government should formulate the laws while keeping in mind the principles of DPSP. Our Constitution makers were foreseener. They predicted that the new 'India will face different problems. So, in order to combat the problems there are certain guidelines that the government can change into law and can make it mandatory to be followed by each and every person. DPSP contains three main principles:- 1.) Gandhian Principles 2) Liberal Principles 3.) Socio-economic Principles 1.) Gandhian Principles:- These principles were basically thoughts of Gandhi. He wanted that every person should enjoy equal rights and the power should be distributed among various organs of government. For example:- Article 40 was driven from DPSP This article is about formation of local governments. 2.) Liberal Principles:- Theseprinciples are very free in nature and can be implemented in future when the country becomes ready for it. For example:- Universal civil code. 3.) Socio-economic Principles:- These principles are for society as a whole. It mainly focuses on developing each and every people's socio and economic condition. For example- Mid-day meal scheme.

Liberalism is a political and moral philosophy based on liberty, consent of the governed and equality before the law.

• In the early 19th century liberal nationalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality in a nation. 
• Politically, it emphasised the concept of government by consent.
• For the middle class in Europe, liberalism stood for freedom of an individual and equality for all.
• Economic liberalism demanded by teh middle class stood for freedom of markets and abolition of state restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.

   

The political philosophy also are :- individual freedom,social justice, respect for diversity and minority rights , secularism,universal franchise , federalism and national unity

a.   It explains the conceptual structure of the constitution. it helps us to understand the meanings of terms like 'rights', 'citizenship', or democracy.  b.  It explains the values on which our constitution is build. c.  it also helps to explain the reasons behind the formulation of law. when Indian Constitution is read in conjunction with  constituent assembly debates, we are to justify values embedded in our constitution.

Political philosophy of our constitution  means that :

a.   It explains the conceptual structure of the constitution. it helps us to understand the meanings of terms like 'rights', 'citizenship', or democracy. 

b.  It explains the values on which our constitution is build.

c.  it also helps to explain the reasons behind the formulation of law. when Indian Constitution is read in conjunction with  constituent assembly debates, we are to justify values embedded in our constitution.  Therefore, political philosophy not only helps in finding the moral value of the law but also it helps to arbitrate between varying interpretations of the values in our polity.  

A constituent assembly or constitutional assembly is a body or assembly of popularly elected representatives which is assembled for the purpose of drafting or adopting a constitution or similar document. The constituent assembly is entirely elected by popular vote [1]; that is, all constituent assemblies are constitutional conventions, but a constitutional convention is not necessarily a constituent assembly. As the fundamental document constituting a state, a constitution cannot normally be modified or amended by the state's normal legislative procedures[2]; instead a constitutional convention or a constituent assembly, the rules for which are normally laid down in the constitution, must be set up. A constituent assembly is usually set up for its specific purpose, which it carries out in a relatively short time, after which the assembly is dissolved. A constituent assembly is a form of representative democracy. Unlike forms of constitution-making in which a constitution is unilaterally imposed by a sovereign lawmaker, the constituent assembly creates a constitution through "internally imposed" actions, in that members of the constituent assembly are themselves citizens, but not necessarily the rulers, of the country for which they are creating a constitution.[3] As described by Columbia University Social Sciences Professor Jon Elster: Constitutions arise in a number of different ways. At the non-democratic extreme of the spectrum, we may imagine a sovereign lawgiver laying down the constitution for all later generations. At the democratic extreme, we may imagine a constituent assembly elected by universal suffrage for the sole task of writing a new constitution. And there are all sorts of intermediate arrangements.[4]

The Constituent Assembly had set itself for the task of preparing a constitution of free India. Itstarted meeting on 9 December, 1946 the Drafting Committee under the Chairmanship of Dr. B. R.Ambedkar, completed its work on 26 November,1949. The Constitution of India came into forceon 26 January, 1950. When India became a Republic. Every year we celebrate 15 August as the Independence Day and 26 January as the Republic Day.
The task of Assembly was outlined by Pt.Jawaharlal Nehru in his speech moving the objectives resolution in on 13 December, 1946. In the resolution proposed, the Assembly expressed its firm and solemn resolve to pro-claim India as an Independent Sovereign Republic comprising British India, Indian Princely States and other territories willing to be constituted into the Independent Sovereign India. The Assembly declared that justice : social, economic and political, equality of status, of opportunity, and before the law; freedom of expression, thought,believe, faith, worship, vocations association and action shall be guaranteed and secured to all the people of India.

NATURE: Unjust practice in politics includes all kinds of political discrimination, unequal representation and unjust election administration. Crimes of a political nature include war crimes, corruption, subversive activities, treason and repression. Political injustice may lead to alienation, apathy and stagnation or political instability, political or national disintegration, revolution or foreign intervention. BROADER PROBLEMS: Injustice NARROWER PROBLEMS: Political crime Unfair elections Political imprisonment Refusal to grant amnesty Unjust electoral campaigns RELATED PROBLEMS: Social injustice Military secrecy Social inequality Corruption of juries Unjust election timing Political party manipulation of elections Bias in selection of political candidates AGGRAVATES: Political apathy Political inequality Political instability Unequal political representation STRATEGIES: Using political injustice Attaining social justice VALUES: Independence Justice Dependence Injustice SUBJECT(S): Government → Political Societal Proble

2 years11 month and 18 days to prepare the constitution to be adopted on November 26,1949 And come into force on 26January 1950.

Goals are the aspirations that are set to be achieved and are the driving force towards working in getting them sorted out.

Goals helps in Improving the speed at which work is done in a society.

The morale and motives that encourages an individual to operate.

They are useful in uniting forces and coming together and making it possible to work towards one goal.

 

Rule by men. Or men dominated society

Patriarchy means rule by men. It literally refers to a society that values men more than women. A woman was considered timid and fool infront of a man. Patriarchal society is like a cancer to this world. Not only lndia, but there are many countries where patriarchal society still exists. In most of the households, we will see that a family has a boy and a girl where a girl is made to wash her plates, wash her clothes and a boy's work is done by his mother. Why is this so? This is so because of our damn patriarchal society. Thus, the state should adopt measures that benefit women more than men.

• Literally, it means rule by father. The concept of patriarchy is often employed to refer to a system that values men more and accords them power over women.
• Patriarchal society is the society which values men more and gives ruling power to men over women.
• Matriarchal society is the society which values women more and gives ruling power to women over men.
• Gender equality is valuing both men and women rights equally in the society.

A Bill is the draft of a legislative proposal. It has to pass through various stages before it becomes an Act of Parliament. There are three stages through which a bill has to pass in one House of Parliament. The procedure is similar for the Legislative Assemblies of States.

*Powers of the Lok Sabha:- 1.) It introduces money and non money bills. It gives opinions and later decides whether to accept it or reject it. 2.) It amends bills. 3.) It records the accountability of executive by asking questions, making committee etc. This helps the Lok Sabha on keeping a bird's eye view on the executive. 4.) It participates in the elections of Vice President and President and also participates in the process of removal of judged of Supreme Court and High Court. 5.) It gives assent to the Proclamation of state of emergency. *Powers of Rajya Sabha:- 1.) It passed non money bills and actively participates in the process. 2.) It participates in the amendment of the Constitution. 3.) It keeps a bird's eye view on the executive by asking different questions etc. 4.) It can alone participate in the elections and removal of President, Vice President, judges of high court and supreme court. 5.) It can give the Union Parliament the power to make laws in state regarding list.

1. The Council of States or Rajya Sabha is a permanent House and it is not subject to dissolution. After every two years, one-third of its members retire and its same numbers of seats are filled up by new members. The Lok Sabha is not a permanent House. It is dissolved after the expiry of its term of five years. But it can be dissolved before the period of five years by the President on the advice of the Council of Ministers. New Lok Sabha is elected and constituted within a period of 6 months from the date of its dissolution.

2. The total membership of the Rajya Sabha is 250. It is a representative House of States but the States are not represented equally in the Rajya Sabha. Seats in the Rajya Sabha are allocated to different States on the basis of population. Out of the total members of the House, twelve members are nominated by the President from amongst the persons having special knowledge or practical experience in the fields of literature, science, art and social service. The maximum strength of the Lok Sabha can be 552 members. Out of this, 530 members are elected from the States and 20 members are elected from the Union Territories. The remaining two members are nominated by the President from among the Anglo-Indian community.

3. The members of the Rajya Sabha are elected by the Legislative Assemblies of the respective States on the basis of proportional representation. The members of the Lok Sabha are elected by the people directly on the basis of secret vote and universal franchise. For the purpose of election, the population is divided into various constituencies.

4. The Chairman of the Rajya Sabha is not a member of this House. The Vice-President of India is the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. But the Deputy-Chairman of the Rajya Sabha is elected by the members of the Rajya Sabha from amongst its members. The Speaker and the Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha are the members of the House and are elected by the members of the Lok Sabha themselves.

5. The Money Bills cannot be introduced in the Rajya Sabha. The Money Bills can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha.

6. With respect to Money Bills, the Rajya Sabha can make only recommendations which mayor may not be accepted by the Lok Sabha. The Rajya Sabha is given 14 days time to consider the Money Bills and if it fails to do anything within that period, the Bill is deemed to have been passed in the manner it was passed by the Lok Sabha. The Lok Sabha is not bound to accept the recommendations of the Rajya Sabha with respect to Money Bills. The Lok Sabha has the real and final authority in respect of Money Bills.

It's true that equality is natural. Men and women are born free. Free in every possible way. They can do whatever they want. For a long time, women were considered less powerful as compared to men. Nature made everything with equal importance. It was men who put restrictions on women or on other things. Thus, equality is natural. But, due to some people's restrictions on certain things that resulted inequality. However, in today's world we face a society which treats a women equally as men (except for some places). Thus, natural equality can't be restricted by anyone. Hence, equality is natural.

Natural equality implies that all men are born free and equal, hence the state should promote social and economic opportunities to offer equality. Social equality makes all persons equally eligible to enjoy various opportunities.

I can't fully agree with the above statement. But, at some point l can agree with that. Look, inequality was created by men and this society. Nature never treated anyone unlikely. It was our society that created one of the worse things. It created the crudest system of casteism, a patriarchal society where women were considered only to beget children, a society where the poor people's choice was snatched from them, a society of class system, widow immolation continued etc. Nature gave the responsibility to a women for giving birth to a child but this society took it in such a way that they started exploiting them. But, conditions are not even good now. This inequality is not created by nature. Did nature tell only us(women) to make food? The answer is no. It's a societal norms that forces us to think that these are natural inequality. However, against this background, the state should look into these things and try to make sure that these inequalities are not continued anywhere.

Natural equality implies that all men are born free and equal, hence the state should promote social and economic opportunities to offer equality. Social equality makes all persons equally eligible to enjoy various opportunities.

A democratic country needs a constitution because:

• A constitution puts down certain principles that form the basis of the kind of country that we as citizens, desire to live in.
• A Constitution tells us the fundamental nature of our society.
• A Constitution helps serve as a set of rules and principles that all persons in a country can agree upon as the basis of the way in which they want the country to be governed.
• The constitution also spells out the ideals the citizens believe that their country should uphold.

Why we need constution

Negative liberty defend an area in which individual would be inviolable, he/she can do, be or become whatever he/she wishes. There is no external authority that can interfere. If this area is too small then human dignity gets compromised. Thus, it explain the idea of "Freedom from".

Negative liberty is freedom from interference by other people. Negative liberty is primarily concerned with freedom from external restraint and contrasts with positive liberty. The distinction was introduced by Isaiah Berlin in his 1958 lecture "Two Concepts of Liberty". Positive liberty is the possession of the capacity to act upon one's free will, as opposed to negative liberty, which is freedom from external restraint on one's actions.

because for elections to lok sabha and state legislative assembly India has adopted the FPTP system The reasons for success of FPTP include : 1 Simplicity and Accountability The PR system of elections is quite complicated. It can work in small countries but it is unsuitable for a sub- continental country like india. For common voters ,the FPTP system is easy to understand and operate. Voters have to simply choose a candidate or a party while voting. Voters may give importance to either the party or thr candidate or strike a balance between both. In the PR system, voters vote for parties and representatives are chosen as on the basis of party list. As a result no one is real representative. In FPTP , the voters know and can approach the representative of their constituency and can also hold them accountable. 2 . Stable Government The framers of indian constitution felt that PR system may not provide stable Government in the legislature and PR system may not produce clear majority since seats are alloted in legislature on the basis of vote share. The FPTP system allows largest party or coalition to form a government with a majority, more than PR system of sharung votes may give. The FPTP system therefore provides stability to parliamentary government . 3 . Wide representation FPTP system encourages representatives of different communities to win election in a locality. The PR system would lead each community to form a nationwide party in India since the nation is full of diverse groups. The framers of Indian constitution have lived upto the expectations of the Indian people. The FPTP syst is a simple and familiar system for ordinary voters. It helps huge parties to win majority at central and state levels. It has even discouraged parties to get votes only from one social group. Normally the functioning of FPTP system leads to a two party system. But in India first it was one party dominance while small parties existed. Sice 1989, it has led to rise of multi-party coalition in India. But in many states two party competition is emerging . Likewise, the distinct feature of Indian party system is that the rise of coalition has made it possible for new and small parties to enter into open electoral competition deapie the existence of FPTP system.

Our country 'India' adopted the FPTP system because of the following reasons:- 1.) Biggest democratic country 'lndia' :- First reason, our country is large and has a very good and great amount of population. In order to represent this large and diverse population, lndia adopted FPTP system. 2.) Simplicity of FPTP system:- If we look at PR system and FPTP system then clearly we can say that the FPTP system is not complex and can be easily understood by literates, old people, illiterate, remote village people etc. 3.) FPTP system involves less chances of confusion:- lf we look at this system then it can be clearly understood that this system saves our precious time as this system involves only one time voting whereas PR system involves voting two or three times. It also prevents the chances of confusion in counting votes. 4.)FPTP is good for having a majority seats secured by any party:- In Parliamentary system, the executive plays a big role and in such cases there should be a party( elected by majority) to look after the works. In PR system, the seats are shared in proportion to each party's votes. Thus, there should be a party with maximum number of seats without using any complex process.

India adopted this system because for elections to lok sabha and state legislative assembly India has adopted the FPTP system

The reasons for success of FPTP include :

1 Simplicity and Accountability: The PR system of elections is quite complicated. It can work in small countries but it is unsuitable for a sub- continental country like india. For common voters ,the FPTP system is easy to understand and operate. Voters have to simply choose a candidate or a party while voting. Voters may give importance to either the party or thr candidate or strike a balance between both. In the PR system, voters vote for parties and representatives are chosen as on the basis of party list. As a result no one is real representative. In FPTP , the voters know and can approach the representative of their constituency and can also hold them accountable.

2 . Stable Government: The framers of indian constitution felt that PR system may not provide stable Government in the legislature and PR system may not produce clear majority since seats are alloted in legislature on the basis of vote share. The FPTP system allows largest party or coalition to form a government with a majority, more than PR system of sharung votes may give. The FPTP system therefore provides stability to parliamentary government .

3 . Wide representation: FPTP system encourages representatives of different communities to win election in a locality. The PR system would lead each community to form a nationwide party in India since the nation is full of diverse groups.

Direct democracy is the democracy where people elects their representatives directly by participating in elections. For example:- In the presidential election of the U.S.A, the people of America chooses his/her representative through direct elections. Indirect democracy is the democracy where people's representatives(who are elected by people) choose their head through participating in elections. For example:- ln lndia, we choose MLAs and MPs who further participate in the election of President of India.

Direct democracy is when the people vote directly on the law or other issues that are proposed .
Indirect democracy is when the people elect representatives who vote on law on the behalf of the people .

 

Constitution of India is the rule-book for democratic governance in India. It came into force on 26 January 1950 and to date remains one of the biggest milestones in the history of our country. Framing a constitution is never a simple task but it was especially hard for India given the extremely tumultuous situation at the time. A newly independent country with a highly unequal social order was a daunting challenge to deal with, especially when it was still reeling under the effects of partition.

The Constitution was framed by the Constituent Assembly established under the Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946. The 299 individuals who comprised the Constituent Assembly can therefore rightfully be termed as the founding fathers and mothers of the Republic of India. Certain members of the Constituent Assembly played a key role, the foremost of whom was Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, whose role as the Chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Assembly has earned him the popular moniker of ‘Father of the Indian Constitution’. Other Congress stalwarts like Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, and Maulana Azad were also dominant voices in Assembly proceedings. A special mention must go to Constitutional Advisor, Dr. B.N. Rau who compiled the initial draft that the assembly debated after taking inputs from constitutional experts at home and abroad

The Constitution was framed by the Constituent Assembly established under the Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946. The 299 individuals who comprised the Constituent Assembly can therefore rightfully be termed as the founding fathers and mothers of the Republic of India. Certain members of the Constituent Assembly played a key role, the foremost of whom was Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, whose role as the Chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Assembly has earned him the popular moniker of ‘Father of the Indian Constitution’. Other Congress stalwarts like Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, and Maulana Azad were also dominant voices in Assembly proceedings. A special mention must go to Constitutional Advisor, Dr. B.N. Rau who compiled the initial draft that the assembly debated after taking inputs from constitutional experts at home and abroad

Political science, occasionally called politology, is a social science which deals with systems of governance, and the analysis of political activities, political thoughts, associated constitutions and political behavior. Political science is a branch of social science that is concerned with theory, description, analysis and prediction of political behavior, political systems and politics. A degree in politics prepares students for many forms of employment as well as further study. You will gain many analytical and practical skills including the ability to conduct research, oral and written communication and IT, all of which are invaluable in today's employment market.