Constitution is a compact document that comprises a number of articles about the state, specifying how the state is constituted and what norms it should follow

A Constitution of a country is a set of written rules that are accepted by all people living together in a country. Constitution is the supreme law that determines the relationship among people living in a territory and also the relationship between the people and government. A constitution performs several functions:
(i) It generates a decree of trust and coordination that is necessary for different kind of people to live together.
(ii) It species how the government will be constituted, who will have power to take which decisions.
(iii) It lays down limits on the powers of the government and tells us what the rights of the citizens are.
(iv) It expresses the aspirations of the people about creating a good society.

Civil servants

John Rawls describes justice as thinking under a 'veil of ignorance' where position and status in society, everybody would decide as per one's own interests. The fundamental elements of justice are equality before law, respect for the necessities of nature, truth and freedom, etc

The fundamental elements of justice are equality before law, respect for the necessities of nature, truth and freedom, etc. Justice exercises four dimensions, i.e. political, legal, social and economic.

Social justice is a concept of fair and just relation between the individual and society, as measured by the distribution of wealth, opportunities for person activity, and social privileges.

The Constitution is needed for the following reasons:

1. The Constitution provides a framework within which a government has to work.

2. It controls the misuse of power by the government.

3. It minimises the chances of disputes among the various organs of the Government as it clearly defines their powers and functions.

4. It safeguards the fundamental rights of the citizens.

Powers and functions of the Election Commission of India are

•  The Election Commission announces the date of elections.
•   Its biggest function and responsibility is to conduct free and fair elections.
• It implements the Code of Conduct few days before and during polling. It can punish any candidate who violates the code of conduct.
• The Election Commission during election period may instruct the government to follow certain guidelines and ensure that the ruling party does not misuse the governmental powers.
• During elections, every government employees works under the control of the Election Commission and not the government. 

Disadvantages

• Governments are being elected on a minority of votes cast in a general election, meaning those in government who are making all the decision do not represent the opinions of the majority of the country. This leads to doubts about democratic legitimacy. The was particularly prevalent in the 2005 election, when Labour secured a majority of the seats in the House of Commons with only 35.2% of the total vote, however this issue was solved in 2010 with the formation of a coalition, so 59.1% of the total votes was for one of the two parties that make up to coalition. So in this sense the current coalition is more legitimate than the previous Labour government.
• FPTP is extremely discriminative against smaller parties due to our 'two party system.' The Liberal Democrats are a prime example of such discrimination; in the 2010 General Election they received 23% of the votes but just 57 seas, while Labour received 29% of votes and 258 seats. On average, 33,000-34,000 votes are needed to elect a Labour or Conservative MP, but 120,000 to elect a Liberal Democrat. This is why the Lib Dems were pushing for the AV referendum in 2011, as a more proportional system would see them receive more seats.
• There are a large number of 'wasted' votes, for example those living in a 'safe seat' voting against the traditional party or a vote for a smaller party that is extremely unlikely to win a seat (eg. the Green party). This means that votes in marginal seats are effectively worth more than those in safe seats, politicians are more likely to spend time in these areas prior to an election to try and convince the voters to 'swing' to their party. An example of a safe seat is Liverpool Walton which is held by labour. This type of vote wastage may be one of the reasons for low turnout, people do not see the point in voting if their vote is not going to count.

Advantages

• It has existed for a long time, is widely accepted and tradition for the Westminster General Elections. It is also easy to understand, meaning even those who are not hugely knowledgeable in politics are able to participate.
• It retains a strong link between an MP and his or her constituency; this provides an access point for citizens to participate in the democratic process. This is not as easy to do in electoral systems that have multi-member constituencies, as your constituency will be much larger so your representative may live too far away for you to be able to visit. If you have more than one representative for your area it also causes the problem of choosing which one of your representatives to approach.
• It tends to produce a strong and stable government, which therefore has a clear majority in the House of commons and a strong mandate to govern (although the 2010 result weakens this argument). A strong government means they will be able to introduce the policies in their manifesto, which they were voted into government to do. A stable governement means they are unlikely to collapse or recieve a 'vote of no confidence,' so we can be sure the government will last its entire 5 year term ensuring the country has stability.

Semi -presidential govt:-

1. President -Head of the state
2. Prime minister-Head of the government
3. PM and council are responsible to legislators.

Parliamentary form of govt:-

1. Head of the govt is Prime minister
2. He is leader of majority party in the legislature
3. He is accountable to legislator
4. Head of state may be -monarch and president both are ceremonial executive

Through these amendments local self-governance was introduced in rural and urban India. ... These amendments added two new parts to the Constitution, namely, 73rd Amendment added Part IX titled “The Panchayats” and 74th Amendment added Part IXA titled “The Municipalities”.

Equality is regarded as powerful moral ideal. It has inspired and guided all human society for many centuries. It is implicit in all faiths and religions which proclaim all human beings to be the creation of almighty.

In negative liberty an individual do not have any constriants a d he/she can do,be or become whatever they want to do, be or become. It explains the idea of "freedom from". In positive liberty an individual has some or the other constraints which one has to follow and it explains the idea of "freedom to".

• In several developed and poor nations the distribution of resources is extremely uneven & the disparities are of several dimensions: wages, education , gender, caste, race, faith, religion, rural/urban and regional. Although, most critically, these differences are so profoundly rooted in our culture of society, governance and the environment.
• Our institutions, societies, and ways of doing things are designed to sustain and exacerbate this disparity over decades. In his / her lifetime, a poor child is likely to remain poor and his / her offspring are likely to remain poor, too. Our culture &  institutions are designed to promote gender inequality. We live in a culture in which injustice is "entrenched" &  growing – words may have significant and pernicious consequences in this context. This is particularly true in the way we talk of disparities.

What do you mean by rights? Answer: Rights are conditions of social life to be given by society and recognized by the state to promote welfare of the people. Question 2. What does ‘duty’ stand for? Answer: Duty is the performance towards others, i.e. towards people, or nation or society, etc. Question 3. What are ‘Fundamental Rights’? Answer: ‘Fundamental Rights’ are granted by the Constitution of India to its citizens to be mandatory for the development and progress of the people. Question 4. What does the Right to Equality stand for? Answer: Right to Equality stands for: All citizens of India are equal before law. This is an important right to abolish inequality among people of different castes and religion as well as between man and woman.

Question 1.
What do you mean by rights?
Answer:
Rights are conditions of social life to be given by society and recognized by the state to promote welfare of the people.

Question 2.
What does ‘duty’ stand for?
Answer:
Duty is the performance towards others, i.e. towards people, or nation or society, etc.

Question 3.
What are ‘Fundamental Rights’?
Answer:
‘Fundamental Rights’ are granted by the Constitution of India to its citizens to be mandatory for the development and progress of the people.

Question 4.

What does the Right to Equality stand for?
Answer:
Right to Equality stands for:

• All citizens of India are equal before law.
• This is an important right to abolish inequality among people of different castes and religion as well as between man and woman.

Why Fundamental Rights are important?
Answer:
Fundamental Rights are important because:

• These Rights ensure all those freedoms which make one’s life worth living.
• Fundamental rights provide equality of status and opportunity as well as protect individuals from any type of exploitation.

Question 5.

Who has the power to amend the Fundamental Rights?
Answer:
The Parliament has the right to amend the Fundamental Right.

Question 6.
Why Right to Freedom of Religion is an important right?
Answer:
The Right to Freedom of Religion is important because:

• Religion is a matter of faith, relates to conscience of a person.
• Citizens are free to adopt any religion.
• Citizens can opt any mode of worship as per choice.
• Citizens are free to manage their own religious affairs.

Question 7.
What is the importance of Article 21 of Indian Constitution?
Answer:
Article 21 provides protection of life and personal liberty, i.e. no person shall be deprived of one’s life except according to the procedure established by law of India.

Question 8
What do you mean by ‘Right to Freedom’?
Answer:
Right to Freedom implies:

• Freedom of speech and expression.
• To assemble peacefully and without arms.
• To form associations and unions.
• To move freely inside territory of country.

Question 9.
What does the ‘Right to Life’ stand for?
Answer:
Right to Life stands for:

• To live up without fear, injury and external danger.
• Even the individual himself does not possess the right to take away his own life, i.e. to commit suicide is also a crime before law.

10. The Right against Exploitation enshrined in the Indian Constitution guarantees dignity of the individual. It also prohibits the exploitation or misuse of service by force or inducement in the following ways:

• It prohibits human trafficking i.e. it criminalises buying and selling of human beings like a commodity. It also prohibits use of women or girls for immoral purposes.
• It prohibits slavery, begar, bonded labour or other forms of forced labour. Begar is a term used for practice wherein the worker has to render free service to his master or at a nominal rate. The State has been given the authority to introduce compulsory service for such persons in order to stop the practice. The government cannot discriminate on the basis of religion, race, colour, etc.
• It prohibits the employment of children below the age of 14 years in factories, mines and other hazardous activities. 

Human rights are so necessary for the human for some porpus because all people have need rights without rights we can't servive rights give us justice

Human rights also guarantee people the means necessary to satisfy their basic needs, such as food, housing, and education, so they can take full advantage of all opportunities. Finally, by guaranteeing life, liberty, equality, and security, human rights protect people against abuse by those who are more powerful

answer

• It is most necessary for a country to have a clear demarcation of powers and responsibilities in the constitution. Powers of all institutions like the legislature, the executive and the judiciary and even independent statutory bodies like the Election Commission are demarcated.
•  
• It is to ensure that no single institution acquires monopoly of power. This ensures that even if one institution wants to subvert the constitution, others can check its transgressions.
• For example, in Indian Constitution the principle of check and balance is applied to secure the fundamental rights to its citizens. In the absence of such a demarcation there would be problems to the citizens and the laws will be unjust and unfair. A constitution is to specify who has the power to make decisions in a society.
• It decides how the government will be constituted. In a democratic constitution, it sets some limits on what a government can impose on its citizens. These limits are fundamental in the sense that government may never tresspass them.
• The constitution shows how the organs of government should relate to each other. In a federal form of government, the judiciary is given a specific place. It can declare any law unconstitutional or ultra vires if it is not in the tune with the provisions of the constitution. If there was no demarcation of powers in centreand states, there would be a crisis and the federal set up would get strained.

WTO or World Trade Organization has been founded to act as permanent watchdog on the International Trade. Its main function is to ensure global trade flows. The World Trade Organization is an intergovernmental organization. It is concerned with the regulation of international trade between nations.

 

 

Direct and Indirect In direct elections we use first past the post system and in indirect elections we use proportional representation.

borrowing provisions have helped the Constitution to build upon the collective learning of the humankind. Let us check the provisions which have been sourced from different legal systems: i. The Government of India Act of 1935: This was an Act passed by the Parliament of Britain. It provided a framework for the government of India and was passed in the response to demands of the Indian leaders for democracy. The Constitution borrows from it the Federal Scheme of government, Office of Governor, the system of the judiciary (establishing a supreme court), Public Service Commissions, and the Emergency provisions. ii. British Constitution: Parliamentary system, Bicameralism, Rule of Law (Article 14), Legislative procedure, Single citizenship, Cabinet System, System Writs (Article 32 & 226), the rule of law   iii. US Constitution: Fundamental Rights (Part III), Post of Vice President, Judicial Review, Impeachment of the President, Removal of judges of Supreme Court and High Court(Article 124). iv. Irish Constitution: Directive Principles of State Policy (Part IV), the nomination of members to Rajya Sabha, and method of election of President. v. Canadian Constitution: It is exciting that the same parliament (British) Which passed the Government of India Act 1935, made constitutional laws for Canada. Thus, borrowing from Canada means taking something from English Case law. The provisions regarding the Federation with a strong center, the appointment of governors by the center and advisory jurisdiction of the Supreme Court (Article 143), and the residuary powers with the center (Article 248) have been sourced from Canada. vi. Australian Constitution: Freedom of trade and commerce, Concurrent List, joint sitting of the two Houses of Parliament. vii. Weimar Constitution (Constitution of Germany): Suspension of Fundamental Rights during Emergency. viii. Soviet Constitution: The Soviet Constitution is known for its socialism. India, being a welfare state, did borrow the principles like Fundamental duties and the ideals of social, economic and political justice (Found in the Preamble). ix. French Constitution: Republic character of Constitution. The ideals of liberty , equality and fraternity in the Preamble. x. South African Constitution: Procedure for amendment, the Constitution and election of the members of Rajya Sabha. xi. Japanese Constitution: Procedure established by law. This, the above-mentioned provisions, are those which have been sourced from a foreign legal system. it must not be concluded from the above that it is a copy paste,

The ultimate source of political and constitutional authority in India is vested with the people. Elections are held on regular intervals on the basis of adult franchise. Equality is the basic principle of a democratic form of government. Citizens of India enjoy the justifiable fundamental rights.

Number of members of Constituent Assembly

Initially, its total membership was kept 389. After partition, the Constituent Assembly of India had 299 representatives. These included 229 members from provinces and 70 from princely states. There were total nine women members also. The membership plan was roughly as per suggestions of the Cabinet Mission plan.  The basis of divisions of seats was “population” roughly in 1:10 Lakh ratio.