The Constitution provides that an amendment may be proposed either by the Congress with a two-thirds majority vote in both the House of Representatives and the Senate or by a constitutional convention called for by two-thirds of the State legislatures. Under Article V of the Constitution, there are two ways to propose and ratify amendments to the Constitution. To propose amendments, two-thirds of both houses of Congress can vote to propose an amendment, or two-thirds of the state legislatures can ask Congress to call a national convention to propose amendments.

Social justice is a political and social ideology that advocates for the equal redistribution of wealth, equal access to economic opportunities, and the reduction of unfair privileges within a society. For example, the death penalty, which allows a person who has been found guilty of a very violent crime to be executed as punishment, is legal in some places.

The basic needs approach is one of the major approaches to the measurement of absolute poverty in developing countries. It attempts to define the absolute minimum resources necessary for long-term physical well-being, usually in terms of consumption goods. The poverty line is then defined as the amount of income required to satisfy those needs.  Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory of motivation which states that five categories of human needs dictate an individual's behavior. Those needs are physiological needs, safety needs, love and belonging needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs. 

In economics, a free market is a system in which the prices for goods and services are self-regulated by the open market and by consumers. In a free market, the laws and forces of supply and demand are free from any intervention by a government or other authority, and from all forms of economic privilege, monopolies and artificial scarcities. Proponents of the concept of free market contrast it with a regulated market in which a government intervenes in supply and demand through various methods such as tariffs used to restrict trade and to protect the local economy. In an idealized free-market economy, prices for goods and services are set freely by the forces of supply and demand and are allowed to reach their point of equilibrium without intervention by government policy.

Scholars contrast the concept of a free market with the concept of a coordinated market in fields of study such as political economy, new institutional economics, economic sociology and political science. All of these fields emphasize the importance in currently existing market systems of rule-making institutions external to the simple forces of supply and demand which create space for those forces to operate to control productive output and distribution. Although free markets are commonly associated with capitalism within a market economy in contemporary usage and popular culture, free markets have also been advocated by anarchists, socialists and some proponents of cooperatives and advocates of profit sharing.

A constituent assembly or constitutional assembly is a body or assembly of popularly elected representatives which is assembled for the purpose of drafting or adopting a constitution or similar document. The Assembly was not elected on the basis of universal adult suffrage, and Muslims and Sikhs received special representation as minorities. ... The Assembly met for the first time in New Delhi on 9 December 1946, and its last session was held on 24 January 1950. The Constituent Assembly was formed in 1946. The idea of making the Constituent Assembly for framing the Constitution of India was devised by the Cabinet Mission Plan. The Constituent Assembly consisted of the elected representatives of varioius provinces who were eminent personalities in their own fields.

Mixed-member proportional (MMP) representation is a mixed electoral system in which voters get two votes: one to decide the representative for their single-seat constituency, and one for a political party. The first candidate on a list, for example, will get the first seat that party wins. Each voter casts a vote for a list of candidates. ... A party is allocated seats in proportion to the number of votes it receives. Proportional representation is a system used to elect a country's government. ... If no party wins over 50% of the vote, then a coalition government usually has to be formed, where a government is formed from two or more different political parties, who together have over 50% of the seats in parliament.

Jurisdiction, in law, the authority of a court to hear and determine cases. This authority is constitutionally based.  A court's power to hear and decide a case before any appellate review. A trial court must necessarily have original jurisdiction over the types of cases it hears. There are four main types of jurisdiction (arranged from greatest Air Force authority to least): (1) exclusive federal jurisdiction; (2) concurrent federal jurisdic- tion; (3) partial federal jurisdiction; and (4) proprietary jurisdiction. Depending on your installation, more than one type of jurisdiction may apply.

The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) established in 1993, is an independent statutory body as per the provisions of the Protection of Human Rights Act of 1993 which was amended in 2006. 

• Human Rights are an indispensable part of society and Human Rights in India are watched by NHRC.
• NHRC acts as a watchdog of human rights in the country.
• NHRC looks over the rights that are related to life, dignity, liberty and equality of the individual that is defined in Section 2(1) of the PHR Act. 
• They are guaranteed by the Constitution of India, embodied in the international covenants and are enforceable by the courts of India as well. 
• NHRC was established in compliance with the Paris Principles of Human Rights, 1991 which were adopted for the promotion and protection of Human Rights and were endorsed by United Nations at its General Assembly of 1993

There is no direct election to the post of the Prime Minister. The President appoints the Prime Minister. But the President cannot appoint anyone he likes. He appoints the leader of the majority party or the coalition of parties that commands a majority in the Lok Sabha, as Prime Minister. In case no single party or alliance gets a majority, the President appoints the person most likely to secure a majority support. The Prime Minister does not have a fixed tenure. He continues in power so long as he remains the leader of the majority party or coalition. 
Since the Prime Minister is the head of the government, he enjoys wide-ranging powers : 
(i) He chairs Cabinet meetings and coordinates the work of different Departments. His decisions are final in case disagreements arise between Departments. 
(ii) He exercises general supervision of different ministries. All ministers work under his leadership. 
(iii) The Prime Minister distributes and redistributes work to the ministers. 
(iv) He also has the power to dismiss ministers. When the Prime Minister quits, the entire ministry quits. 
Thus, the Prime Minister is the most powerful person within the Cabinet.

In a modern democratic state legislature performs many functions as follows:
1. Law-making — The most important function of the legislature is to enact laws. It makes laws, alters them, amends the and repeals them.
2. Control over Finance — The national finance is controlled by the legislature in all the democratic states. Budget is passed by the legislature.
3. Amendment in the Constitution — In a democratic state the constitution is amended by legislature.

The United States values free speech as the most important human right, with the right to vote coming in third. Free speech is also highly valued in Germany: its citizens also see this as most important. 

International Bill of Rights

• The right to equality and freedom from discrimination.
• The right to life, liberty, and personal security.
• Freedom from torture and degrading treatment.
• The right to equality before the law.
• The right to a fair trial.
• The right to privacy.
• Freedom of belief and religion.
• Freedom of opinion.

Proportional representation (PR) characterizes electoral systems in which divisions in an electorate are reflected proportionately in the elected body. ... The essence of such systems is that all votes contribute to the result—not just a plurality, or a bare majority. Party-list proportional representation systems are a family of voting systems emphasizing proportional representation in elections in which multiple candidates are elected (e.g., elections to parliament) through allocations to an electoral list. The Knesset (Israel's unicameral parliament) is the country's legislative body. The Knesset took its name and fixed its membership at 120 from the Knesset Hagedolah (Great Assembly), the representative Jewish council convened in Jerusalem by Ezra and Nehemiah in the 5th century BCE.

The ‘Preamble’ of the Constitution of India is a brief introductory statement that sets out the guiding purpose and principles of the document, and it indicates the source from which the document which derives its authority, meaning, the people. The ‘Preamble’ of the Constitution of India is a brief introductory statement that sets out the guiding purpose and principles of the document, and it indicates the source from which the document which derives its authority, meaning, the people. It was adopted on 26 November 1949 by the Constituent Assembly and came into effect on 26th January, 1950.

Facts about Preamble of Indian Constitution

• It was enacted after the enactment of the entire Constitution of India
• The term ‘secular’ was added to the Preamble of the Indian Constitution by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act of 1976.
• The Preamble secures to all citizens of India liberty of belief, faith and worship
• The ideal of justice (social, economic and political) in the Preamble are borrowed from the Soviet Union (Russia) Constitution
• Republic and the ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity are borrowed from the French Constitution
• Preamble, in itself, has been first introduced through the American Constitution

A limited government is one whose legalized force and power is restricted through delegated and enumerated authorities. ... In many cases, such as the United States, it is a constitutionally limited government, bound to specific principles and actions by a state or federal constitution. The Bill of Rights (the first 10 amendments to the Constitution) spells out that powers not explicitly granted to either level of government are reserved for the people. Many other examples of limited governments exist today, such as Canada, England, Australia, Japan, and Mexico.

The fundamental principle underlying the working of the parliamentary system of government is the principle of collective responsibility. Article 75 clearly states that the council of ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. This means that all the ministers own joint responsibility to the Lok Sabha for all their acts of omission and commission. They work as a team and swim or sink together. When the Lok Sabha passes a no-confidence motion against the council of ministers, all the ministers have to resign including those ministers who are from the Rajya Sabha. The principle of collective responsibility also means that the Cabinet decisions bind all cabinet ministers (and other ministers) even if they differed in the cabinet meeting. It is the duty of every minister to stand by cabinet decisions and support them both within and outside the Parliament.

One of the most important functions of a constitution is to set some limits on the rulers.These limits are fundamental in the sense that the rulers may never tresspass them. Constitutions limit the power of the governmentin many ways. The most common way of limiting the power of government is to specify certain fundamental rights. Citizens will normally have some basic rights of liberties: right to freedomof speech, freedom of conscience, freedom of association, freedom to conduct a trade or business, etc. These freedoms of the people could not be checked by the government. But during the national emergency or in national interest these rights may be withdrawn. The rulers orthe government can impose some limitations on its citizens. There can't be any constitution that gives no power to its people. In a monarchical constitution, a monarch decides but in democratic constitutions, the people get to decide. Public mandate is necessary to enact the policies for the rulers. In a dictatorship also the ruler has to get the support of the people to cling to the power as in the case of Pakistan, where General Musharraf Conducts periodic 'referendum' to justify his hold on power. So it is not possible for a constitution to exist that gives no power at all to the citizens.

Freedom refers to do all those things which do not harm to others and, are essential for a person’s own development. There is a close relationship between the freedom for individual and for the nation because:

• If a nation is free, every individual of it, will be free to enhance their creativities and capabilities.
• Development of a nation depends on cooperation, creativity and capabilities of individuals, which can be exercised in the absence of external constraints.
• A free society enables all its members to develop their potentials with the minimum of social constraints
• Though, no society can be imagined without the absence of constraints but it is necessary to determine whether it is acceptable or justified.
• Social constraints are necessary to be examined through debates, discussions between individual and the society.

I: There is much difference between the system of reservation of constituencies and the system of separate electorate. Separate electorate have been a curse to India. In the British period it was started by the British government that the Muslims, Sikhs and some other minorities select their representatives by their own separate vote. But it was most harmful. As a result the nation resorted to the partition (in India and Pakistan). So after partition, in India, the reservation of constituencies for the oppressed social group was adopted. In separate electorates, the candidates are elected by those voters who belong to that particular community. But in the system of reservation of constituencies all voters in a constituency are eligible to vote but candidates must belong to only a particular community for which the seat is reserved. The constitution provides for reservation of seats in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
This provision was made initially for a period of 10 years and as a result of successive constitutional amendments has been extended upto 2010. Today of the 543 elected seats in the Lok Sabha, 79 are reserved for scheduled castes and 41 are reserved for scheduled tribes.

Giving each person his/her due means providing justice by ensuring the well-being of all the people.
In contemporary time, the concept of “giving each his due” has changed to the understanding of what is due to each person as a human being.
The German philosopher Immanuel Kant argued that if all persons are granted dignity then what is due to each of them is the opportunity to develop their talents and pursue their chosen goals.

Fundamental rights are a group of rights that have been recognized by the Supreme Court as requiring a high degree of protection from government encroachment. These rights are specifically identified in the Constitution (especially in the Bill of Rights), or have been found under Due Process. The fundamental rights include economic rights, social rights and cultural rights. Examples of these are the right to work and social security and the right to education. The Constitution also protects equality.