Three dimensions of equality are: Economic, Social and Political Equality.
Political equality means granting equal citizenship to all members of the state. equal citizenship provides certain basic rights such as right to vote, freedom of expression,  movement and association and freedom of belief to everybody. They can participate in the affairs of the country. 
Social equality means provision of equality in society. Equality of oppurtunites need to be provided so that minimum quality of life can be achieved.
Economic equality means granting equal economic oppurtunities to all. 

The President also has veto power by which he can withhold or refuse to give assent to Bills (other than Money Bill) passed by the Parliament. Every bill passed by the Parliament goes to the President for his assent before it becomes a law. The President can send the bill back to the Parliament asking it to reconsider the bill. This “veto’ power is limited because, if the Parliament passes the same bill again and sends it back to the President, then, the President has to give assent to that bill. However, there is no mention in the Constitution about the time limit within which the President must send the bill back for reconsideration. This means that the President can just keep the bill pending with him without any time limit. This gives the President an informal power to use the veto in a very effective manner. This is sometimes referred to as ‘pocket veto’.

Though required to act on the advice of the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers, in certain matters the President may exercise discretion within reasonable limits. The following are the discretionary powers of the President of India:

1. The President can withhold assent to a Non-Money Bill or send it back for reconsideration.
2. There is no time limit within which the President is required to declare his assent or refusal or return the Bill for reconsideration. He can take as much time as he thinks appropriate.
3. If no political party or leader has majority support in the Lok Sabha, the President has the freedom to decide who should be appointed as Prime Minister.
4. In case the Prime Minister has lost the support of the Lok Sabha, he may, instead of tendering his resignation, ask for the dissolution of the House. The President is bound to act on the advice of the Prime Minister. He can also explore the possibility of forming an alternative government at the centre.

(i) Defection in politics means moving of a person from one party to another party for some personal benefit. It means changing party allegiance from the party on which a person got elected to a different party.. 

(ii) It happens when a legislature, after having been elected from a particular party leaves it and joins in other party.

(iii) The Constitution was amended to prevent elected MLA’s and MP’s from changing parties. Now the law says that if any MLA and MP changes parties, he or she will lose seat in the legislature. 

(iv) The new law has brought defection down and has made dissent even more difficult.

The Prime Minister of India is the head of the government and country. He is appointed by the President of India after the political party wins a general election and nominates a candidate for the post. The leader of that political party is hence appointed as the Prime Minister of India.

Powers of Prime Minister

Prime Minister of India serves the country by performing various functions. He performs his functions taking responsibilities that are listed below

• The leader of Country: The Prime Minister of India is the Chief Head of the Government of India.
• Portfolio allocation: The Prime Minister has the authority to assign respective portfolios to the Ministers.
• Chairman of the Cabinet: The Prime Minister is the chairman of the cabinet and conducts the meetings of the Cabinet. He can impose his decision if there is a crucial opinion difference and conflict among the members.
• Official Representative of the country: Prime minister represents the country for high-level international meetings and he is the ambassador of the country.
• The link between the President and the Cabinet: The Prime Minister acts as the link and bond between the President and cabinet. He communicates and transmits all decisions of the Cabinet to the President which is related to the administration of the affairs of the Union and proposals for legislation.
• Head: The Prime Minister is the head of many organisation and programs like Nuclear Command Authority, NITI Aayog, Appointments Committee of the Cabinet, Department of Atomic Energy, Department of Space and Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions.
• Chief Advisor: He also plays the role of chief advisor to the President

The president can declare a state of emergency in the following cases: 1)if the governor of the concerned state advices to do so. This power of the President is known as discretionary power. The following are the discretionary powers of the President of India: The President can withhold assent to a Non-Money Bill or send it back for reconsideration. There is no time limit within which the President is required to declare his assent or refusal or return the Bill for reconsideration.

 Executive:

• The organ of government that primarily looks after the function of implementation and administrations called the executive.

 Different Types of Executive

Presidential system

• The president is the Head of state as well as head of government.

• In this system the office of president is very powerful, both in theory and practice.

• Countries with such a system include the United States, Brazil and most nations in Latin America.

Semi-Presidential Executive

• Under the system of Executive Presidency, people directly elect the President.

• It may happen that both the President and the Prime Minister belong to the same political party or to different political parties.

• Countries with such a system include the France, Russia, Sri Lanka.

Parliamentary System

• The prime minister is the head of government.

• Most parliamentary systems have a president or a monarch who is the nominal Head of state.

• In such a system, the role of president or monarch is primarily ceremonial and prime minister along with the cabinet wields effective power.

• Countries with such system include Germany, Italy, Japan, United Kingdom as well as Portugal.

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The right to equality provides for the equal treatment of everyone before the law, prevents discrimination on various grounds, treats everybody as equals in matters of public employment, and abolishes untouchability, and titles (such as Sir, Rai Bahadur, etc.).

 The types of  equality are:

1. Natural
2. Social
3. Civil
4. Political
5. Economic
6. Legal

Philosophy of the Constitution

Values that inspired and guided the freedom struggle and were in turn nurtured by it, formed the foundation for India’s democracy. Given below are the values embedded in the Preamble of the Indian Constitution.

We, the People of India: The Constitution has been drawn up and enacted by the people through their representatives, and not handed down to them by a king or any outside powers.

Sovereign: People have the supreme right to make decisions on internal as well as external matters. No external power can dictate the Government of India.

Socialist: Wealth is generated socially and should be shared equally by society. The government should regulate the ownership of land and industry to reduce socio-economic inequalities.

Secular: Citizens have complete freedom to follow any religion. But there is no official religion. The government treats all religious beliefs and practices with equal respect.

Democratic: A form of government where people enjoy equal political rights, elect their rulers and hold them accountable. The government is run according to some basic rules.

Republic: The head of the state is an elected person and not a hereditary position.

Justice: Citizens cannot be discriminated against on the grounds of caste, religion and gender. Social inequalities have to be reduced. The government should work for the welfare of all, especially of the disadvantaged groups.

Liberty: There are no unreasonable restrictions on the citizens in what they think, how they wish to express their thoughts and the way they wish to follow up their thoughts in action.

Equality: All are equal before the law. The traditional social inequalities have to be ended. The government should ensure equal opportunity for all.

Fraternity: All of us should behave as if we are members of the same family. No one should treat a fellow citizen as inferior.

India adopted FPTP system because -
1. The entire election system is simple to understand.
2. There is also a clear choice presented to the voters at the time of elections i.e. voters have to simply endorse a candidate or a party while voting .
3. The FPTP system offers voters a choice not simply between parties but specific candidates .
4. Makers of our constitution also felt that PR based elections may not be suitable for giving a stable govt.in a parliamentary system .
5. The FPTP system encourages voters from different social groups to come together to win an election in a locality . In a diverse country like India a PR system would encourage each community to form it's own nation-wide party. This is why FPTP system is best for India.

The Composition of constituent assembly of India ÷ The originalconstituent assembly consisted of 389 members , of which 292 were elected by the elected members of the provincial legislative assemblies while 93 members were nominated by the princely states . Functioning of the constituent assembly ÷ The first meeting of the constituent assembly took place on Dec 9 , 1946 . On Dec 13 , 1946 , Jawaharlal Nehru moved the historic ' Objectives Resolution ' in the Assembly . It laid down the fundamental and philosophy of the constitutional structure . It was unanimously adopted by the Assembly on Jan 2 , 1947 . Its modified version forms the preamble constitution .

• Since Parliament meets only for 70 to 80 days in a year, there is not enough time to discuss every Bill in detail on the floor of the House. Plus debate in the house is mostly political and does not go into the technical details of a legislative proposal.
• Therefore, it takes care of the legislative infirmity of debate on the floor of the House. However, referring Bills to parliamentary committees is not mandatory.

Importance' of Fundamental Rights: 
(i) Fundamental Rights create a feeling of security amongst the minorities in the country. 
(ii) No democracy can function in the absence of basic rights such as freedom of speech and expression. 
(iii) Fundamental Rights grant the standards of conduct, citizenship, justice and fair play. They act as a check on the government.

Indian Constitution was framed by the Constituent Assembly which was elected in 1946. All the members of this Assembly were Indians who represented all the political parties, though Congress Party was in majority. There was no restriction on the powers of the Assembly and it was authorised to enact any type of Constitutionit liked. The Constitution has been framed after thoughtful consideration which exhibits and fulfilsthe ideals, aspirations, values, wishes and requirements of the Indian people.

Main Sources of Indian Constitution—1. The Government of India Act, 1935: Indian Constitution is mainly based on the Government of India Act, 1935. This Act had accepted many of the demands of the Indian National Congress i.e., provincial autonomy, parliamentary system, federal system, federalcourt, etc. When we got freedom we were accustomed of the administrative set up under this Act and we changed the provisions of the Act according to our requirement and suitability in the new Constitution. Thus about two-thirds of Indian Constitution is derived from the Act of 1935.

2. British Constitution: Many of the provisions of the Constitution have been taken from the British Constitution. Parliamentary system is on British pattern except that in India, we have opted for a President as Head of the State, not a king. Our procedure of law making, single citizenship, single integrated judiciary are based on British Constitution. Thus British Constitution is also a big source of Indian Constitution.

3. American Constitution: Idea of Preamble to the Constitution was derived from the American Constitution. Declaration of Fundamental Rights in the Constitution, provision of Judicial Review are also derived from the American Constitution. Preamble to the Indian Constitution and the position of Indian Supreme Court, and those of American Constitution are similar.

4. Constitution of Canada: Our Federal structure is similar to that of Canada. Like Canadian Constitution, we have a more powerful centre than the states and have given residuary powers to the Central Government. Our federal system is not based on American pattern.

5. Constitution of Ireland: Constitution of Ireland had provided for the guidelines to the states. This inspired the makers of the Indian Constitution and they have included the Directive Principles of the State Policy in the Constitution.

6. German Constitution: The makers of the Constitution were inspired by the Weimer Constitution regarding the emergency provisions and they armed the Indian President with emergency powers to face external and internal emergencies.

The ultimate aim of political theory ought to be the protection of individual rights, since that is the proper role of government. Individual rights are a moral concept and it means that one has the right to live one’s own life so long as one acknowledges the equal rights of others to live their lives. Politics is basically ethics applied in a social context, but that does not mean that an ethics or a morality will be imposed upon the people, aside from the fundamental aspect that a man has the right to have his own standards and to live his own life according to his own understanding of existence and life and the nature of man.

Party systems:

One-party system:

. In some countries, only one party is allowed to control and run the government. It is called one-party system.
. We cannot consider one-party system as a good option because this is not a democratic option.
. Any democratic system must allow at least two parties to compete in elections and provide a fair chance for the competing parties to come to power.
  Example: Communist Party of China.

Two-party system:

Describe the various party systems existing in different countries?

. In some countries, power usually changes between two main parties.
. Here, only the two main parties have a serious chance of winning majority seats to form the government.
  Example: USA and UK.

Multi-party system:

. If several parties compete for power and more than two parties have a reasonable chance of coming to power, either on their own or in alliance with others, it is called a multi-party system.
. The multi-party system often appears very messy and leads to political instability.
. At the same time, this system allows a variety of interests and opinions to enjoy political representation.
  Example: India.

Major Coalitions—NDA, UPA, Left Front.

Differences between Political Executives and Permanent Executives :

excluding or not admitting other things.

Just as the Indian Constitution lists the fundamental right (FRs) that are available to the people of India under its Part III, the South African Constitution contains analogous rights in Chapter 2 titled Bill of Rights (BoRs). The following are some similarities and dissimilarities between the FRs and BoRs:

Similarities:
(1) Both FRs and BoRs form the bedrock of the constitution and democracy under the Indian and SA Constitutions respectively. 
(2) Just as the FRs under Indian Constitution, the BoRs under the SA Constitution are available against the State. In fact some limited rights under both Constitutions are available against private citizens also.
(3) Under both Constitutions, while most rights are available to citizens alone, some universally recognised rights such as the right to life and equality are available to all persons. 
(4) Neither the FRs nor BoRs are absolute. Both are subject to reasonable restrictions and limitations.

Differences:
(1) Given the SA Constitution was framed in 1996, it had the benefit of hindsight and was able to learn lot more from experiences of other vibrant democracies like India. This advantage is reflected in the fact that the BoRs is the most elaborate and extensive set of rights endowed upon citizens anywhere in the world including India. For e.g., rights such as the right to privacy and the right to healthy environment which had to be read into FRs in India by the judiciary are explicitly mentioned in the BoRs.
(2) Right to vote which finds a place in the BoRs is only a statutory/legal right in India i.e., it does not have the status of a FR.
(3) Right to property, which finds a place in the BoRs, was removed from Part III of the Constitution by the 44nd Constitutional Amendment and has been placed under Art 300A thereby reducing its status to that of a legal right.
(4) Right to information, which is included in BoRs, is only a statutory right in India.
(5) The SA Constitution provides for creation of a special constitutional court for the enforcement of BoRs. This court has jurisdiction only over constitutional matters and controversies. Under the Indian Constitution, the Supreme Court is endowed with writ jurisdiction. However, it also exercises many other kinds of jurisdictions concurrently. This makes a difference because the special constitution court is less burdened and therefore can spend larger amount of time and expertise in adjudicating and interpreting the provisions of BoRs.

The Right against Exploitation enshrined in the Indian Constitution guarantees dignity of the individual. It also prohibits the exploitation or misuse of service by force or inducement in the following ways:

• It prohibits human trafficking i.e. it criminalises buying and selling of human beings like a commodity. It also prohibits use of women or girls for immoral purposes.
• It prohibits slavery, begar, bonded labour or other forms of forced labour. Begar is a term used for practice wherein the worker has to render free service to his master or at a nominal rate. The State has been given the authority to introduce compulsory service for such persons in order to stop the practice. The government cannot discriminate on the basis of religion, race, colour, etc.
• It prohibits the employment of children below the age of 14 years in factories, mines and other hazardous activities. 

The Unique Features of the Indian Constitution:
1. The Lengthiest Constitution: Indian Constitution is a written constitution. It is the lengthiest constitution in the world. It has 395 articles and schedules (now 12). It is a book of more than 250 pages.
2. The Fundamental Rights and the Directive Principles of State Policies: In our Constitution Indian citizens have been provided with six fundamental rights. And for the establishment of social and economic democracy and for the welfare of its citizens, some directives have been given to the central and the state governments.

3. A unique blend of Unitary and Federal Governments: According to the constitution, India has been declared federal and it looks federal but it has the unitary bias. Thus Indian constitution is federal in form but unitary in spirit.

4. The Fundamental Duties: By the 42nd Amendment in 1976, 10 fundamental duties have been also incorporated in the Indian Constitution.

5. Blend of Flexibility and Rigidity: The Indian Constitution is a blend of flexibility and rigidity. Some of the articles as change in the name of any state or in the boundaries, etc. are amended by a simple majority of the Parliament.

The Constitution of India is neither wholly rigid nor wholly flexible. It is partly rigid and partly flexible. It is because of the fact that for the purpose of amendment, our constitution has been divided into three parts:
(i) Certain provisions of the constitution can be amended by a simple majority in Parliament. (Flexible).
(ii) Certain provisions can be amended by a two-third majority in Parliament and ratified by at least fifty percent of the states. (Rigid).
(iii) The remaining provisions can be amended by Parliament by two-third majority. (Rigid)