The Constitution of India guarantees six Fundamental Rights as follows:

• Right to Equality
• Right to Freedom
• Right against Exploitation
• Right to Freedom of Religion
• Cultural and Educational Rights
• Right to Constitutional Remedies These rights are of great importance because:
• These rights assure a man for his overall development.
• Without these rights, one’s life cannot be made worth living.
• If these rights are violated, the court is responsible to justice.

Constituent Assembly of India was set up under Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946. It consisted of 385 members, of which 292 were elected by the elected members of the provincial Legislative Assemblies while 93 members were nominated by the Princely States.It also had one representative each from the four chief Commissioners provinces of Delhi, Ajmer-Marwar, Coorg and British Baluchistan. 

B N Rao was the Constitutional Advisor of the Assembly. Dr. Rajendra prasad was elected as its president.

Liberalism in political terms stood for equality, freedom, formation and working of government by consent. It meant that the middle class liberals demanded for the end of monarchy and wanted the country to become a republic where people had freedom to express themselves. Political liberalism also refers to people choosing their own government.

Indian Parliament consists of two Houses. The Rajya Sabha is the Upper House and the Lok Sabha is the Lower House. The composition and powers of the Rajya Sabha are given below:

Composition of Rajya Sabha: According to the Constitution, the maximum strength of the Rajya Sabha has been put at 250 members. Out of 250 members, 12 members are nominated by the President. These members shall consists of persons having special knowledge or practical experience in literature, science, art and social service. The remaining 238 members represent the State and the Union Territories. The representatives of the states are elected by the elected members of their Legislative Assembly in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of single transferable.

Tenure: Like the Senate of the U.S.A. the Rajya Sabha is a permanent House. It is not subject to dissolution. Members retiring after every two years.

Officials of the Rajya Sabha: The Vice-President of India is the ex-officio Chairman of the Upper House (Rajya Sabha).

The Rajya Sabha elects a Deputy Chairman from among its own members and the presides in the absence of the Chairman or during the period when the Vice-President is discharging the functions of the President.

Powers and Functions of the Rajya Sabha:

1. Legislative Powers: The Rajya Sabha is an integral part of the Indian Parliament. Since the main responsibility of the Parliament is to make laws, hence the Rajya Sabha takes part in the making of laws. Except Money Bills, all Bills can originate in the Rajya Sabha. No Bill can become a law unless agreed to by both the Houses. The Lok Sabha by itself cannot pass a Bill and send it to the President for his assent. In case of disagreement between the two Houses on a Bill or on the amendments made in the Bill, the President has been empowered to summon a joint meeting of the two Houses on a Bill or on the amendments made in the Bill, the President has been empowered to summon a joint meeting of the two Houses for the purpose of deliberating and voting on the Bill. At a joint sitting questions are decided by a majority of the members of both Houses present and voting. A decision taken at a joint sitting shall mean the decision of both Houses. All the time of the joint sitting the Speaker of the Lok Sabha presides. The President can also summon the joint sitting when a Bill passed by one House is not considered by the other House for six months. For the purpose of summoning the joint sitting it does not matter when the Bill was introduced first in the Lok Sabha or the Rajya Sabha.

2. Administrative Powers: The Rajya Sabha does not control the Executive as the Constitution makes the Council of Ministers collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. But this does not mean that the Rajya Sabha can exert no influence over the Executive. Some of the Ministers are taken from the Rajya Sabha. The members of the Rajya Sabha have the right to ask questions and supplementary questions from the Ministers. They can elicit information about the actions of Government and can move resolutions impressing on the Government the desirability of pursuing a particular line of policy. As said, the Council of Minister can be ousted from office by the Lok Sabha only. The Rajya Sabha can condemn the Government but it cannot kick the Government out of office.

3. Financial Powers: In financial matters, it is the Lok Sabha which enjoys a pre-eminent position. The Rajya Sabha has not been given any substantial power with regard to finance. No Money Bill or Financial Bill can first be introduced in the Rajya Sabha. It is the privilege of the Lok Sabha to pass the Money Bill first and send it to the Rajya Sabha for its recommendations. It should be noted that the Bill is transmitted to the Rajya Sabha for its recommendation and not for its approval. The Rajya Sabha can make amendments in the Money Bill it may ever reject the Money Bill. It has no effect on the Bill. The Lok Sabha is not bound to accept the recommendations made by the Rajya Sabha. In case the Lok Sabha rejects the recommendations of the Rajya Sabha the Bill is deemed to have been passed by both Houses in the form in which it was passed by the Lok Sabha. Likewise, if the Rajya Sabha does not return the Money Bill to the Lok Sabha within 14 days, it will be considered to have been passed by both Houses in the form in which it was passed by the Lok Sabha. Thus, Lok Sabha possesses complete control over the purse of the nation.

The Parliament consists of two houses i.e. Lol Sabha and Rajya Sabha. The Lok Sabha is the lower house with a maximum strength of 552 members, out of which 530 members represent the State, 20 members represent the Union Territories and 2 members from the Anglo-Indian community. 

The important functions of the Lok Sabha are:

1) Legislative Function: The primary function of Parliament is a law making function. Lok Sabha plays an important part. It can pass bills concerning to all those subject which have been included in Union and Concurrent list. No bill can become law unless it has been passed by Lok Sabha. In case of any disagreement between the two Houses, the will of Lok Sabha will prevail in joint sitting with the Rajya Sabha because Lok Sabha has more members than Rajya Sabha.

2) Financial Power: The power of control over the finances by the Lok Sabha is powerful. The money bill has to be introduced in the Lok Sabha first, and when passed by the Lok Sabha it is to be transmitted to Rajya Sabha for the recommendation. It is upon the Lok Sabha to accept or not to accepts the recommendations. The Lok Sabah alone has the exclusive power of sanctioning all government expenditures.

3) Executive Control: The Constitution provides that ' Council of Ministers are collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha.' Thus, the Government is accountable to the Lok Sabha for its acts. It is only the Lok Sabha which can pass a no-confidence vote against the Council of Ministers and force them to resign. 

4) Electoral Function: The Lok Sabha members are part of the electoral college for the election of President. The members of Lok Sabha also elect the Vice-President. It elects the Speaker and Deputy Speaker. 

There are more other functions of the Lok Sabha like redressal of grievances, judicial functions and miscellaneous functions.

Writs are issued by The Supreme Court to enforce the fundamental rights of Indian citizen guaranteed by the constitution. The power to issue writs is a provision under " right to constitutional remedies ". Supreme Court issue 5 type of writs.

1) Habeas corpus (meaning-you may have the body)

2) Mandamus (meaning-we command)

3) Certiorari (to be certified)

4) Prohibition 

5) Quo warranto (meaning- what is your authority)

Bill of rights in the South African Constitution The South African Constitution was inaugurated in December 1996. Its creation and promulgation took place at a time when South Africa still faced the threat of a civil war after the dissolution of the Apartheid government. The South African Constitution says that its “Bill of Rights is a cornerstone of democracy in South Africa”. It forbids discrimination on the grounds of “race, gender, pregnancy, marital status, ethnic or social origin, colour, age, disability, religion, conscience, belief, culture, language and birth”. It grants perhaps the most extensive range of rights to the citizens. A special constitutional court enforces the rights enshrined in the constitution.

One of the issues that is considered to belong to the minimum area of non–interference is the freedom of expression.

(i)Freedom of expression is a fundamental value and for that society must be willing to bear some inconvenience to protect it from people who want to restrict it. 

(ii)Reasonable restrictions on freedom of expression : Freedom of expression is a fundemental value and for that society must be willing to bear some inconvenience to protect it from the people who want to restrict it.

(iii)At various times there have been demands to ban books, plays, films, or academic articles in research journals.

(iv)Let us think about this demand to ban books in the light of our discussion so far which sees freedom as ‘The making of choices,” Where is a distinction made between negative and positive liberty, where we recognise the need for justifiable constraints but there have to be supported by people procedures and important moral arguments.

The Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha are the two houses of the parliament. The Lok Sabha is known as the lower house of the parliament while the Rajya Sabha is the upper house of the parliament. The Lok Sabha has up to 552 members while the maximum number of members allowed for the Rajya Sabha is 250. The Members of Parliament, Lok Sabha are directly elected by the Indian public voting in Single-member districts and the Members of Parliament, Rajya Sabha are elected by the members of all State Legislative Assembly by proportional representation.

The Constitution of India guarantees six Fundamental Rights as follows:

• Right to Equality
• Right to Freedom
• Right against Exploitation
• Right to Freedom of Religion
• Cultural and Educational Rights
• Right to Constitutional Remedies These rights are of great importance because:
• These rights assure a man for his overall development.
• Without these rights, one’s life cannot be made worth living.
• If these rights are violated, the court is responsible to justice.

John Rawls: theory of Justice

• John Rawls argues that the only way we can arrive at a fair and just rule is if we imagine ourselves to be in a situation in which we have to make decisions about how society should be organised although we do not know which position we would ourselves occupy in that society.

• Rawls describes this as thinking under a ‘veil of ignorance’. He expects that in such a situation of complete ignorance about our possible position and status in society, each person would decide in the way they generally do, that is, in terms of their own interests.

• But since no one knows who he would be, and what is going to benefit him, each will predict the future society from the point of view of the worst-off.

• This would not help those who are born in a disadvantaged section of society.

• It is of course not easy to erase our identities and to imagine oneself under a veil of ignorance. But then it is equally difficult for most people to be self-sacrificing and share their good fortune with strangers.

• The merit of the ‘veil of ignorance’ position is that it expects people to just be their usual rational selves: they are expected to think for themselves and choose what they regard to be in their interest.

• Rawls therefore argues that rational thinking, not morality, could lead us to be fair and judge impartially regarding how to distribute the benefits and burdens of a society.
 

A democracy ensures that individuals have certain rights and the government recognises these rights in its constitution. Therefore, there is a list of rights provided and protected by our constitution called 'Bill of Rights'. A bill of rights gives the list of fundamental and very important rights which are important for the life and liberty of an individual. But why fundamental rights are important only to life and liberty? 

Fundamental rights are important to Life because if an individual has no life then there is no point in having a government and doing work to protect his welfare.

And if an individual has no liberty, then whatever the government does for the welfare, the individual will not be able to use it because he does not have freedom to have his goals and aspirations in life. By having freedom; then only individual can move around, talk, build oppurtunities for himself.

Rights and duties go hand in hand. They are closely related. If rights are the claims given to us by others. They are given by us to others.Through rights are help ourselves to develop our personality: while through duties we help others to develop their personalities. We own rights but we owe duties.

Rights are incomplete without duties. Duties are meaningless without rights. Duties are our obligations towards others. Rights are other's obligations towards us. Thus it is difficult to separate rights from duties or duties from rights. In fact they are two sides of the same coin. The existence of one necessitates the existence of the other. The two therefore are interdependent.
 

Parliament

Amendments. Changes to the fundamental rights require a constitutional amendment, which has to be passed by a special majority of both houses of Parliament. This means that an amendment requires the approval of two-thirds of the members present and voting.

In India, like most other democracies in the world, some rights are mentioned in the Constitution. These rights are fundamental to our life and are given a special status. They are called Fundamental Rights. It talks about securing for all its citizens equality, liberty and justice. Fundamental Rights are an important basic feature of the Indian Constitution. These are preserved in the Part III of the Constitution. Importance' of Fundamental Rights: 
(i) Fundamental Rights create a feeling of security amongst the minorities in the country. 
(ii) No democracy can function in the absence of basic rights such as freedom of speech and expression. 
(iii) Fundamental Rights grant the standards of conduct, citizenship, justice and fair play. They act as a check on the government.

Constitution expresses the fundamental identity of people. This means the people as a collective entity come into being only through the basic constitution, this is done by agreeing to basic set of norms and principles then one constitute one’s basic political identity.

The rights mentioned in the constitution shows the very dignity of the citizens in a number of ways from equality to constitutional remedy when the rights are encroached by any powerful authority. The fundamental identity is safeguarded when all forms of discrimination as prescribed by the constitution are shed.

Political theory deals with the ideas and principles that shape Constitutions, governments and social life in a systematic manner. It clarifies the meaning of concepts such as freedom, equality, justice, democracy, secularism and so on. It probes the significance of principles such as rule of law, separation of powers, judicial review, etc. This is done by examining the arguments advanced by different thinkers in defense of these concepts. Though Rousseau or Marx or Gandhi did not become politicians, their ideas influenced generations of politicians everywhere. There are also contemporary thinkers who draw upon them to defend freedom or democracy in our own time. Besides examining arguments, political theorists also reflect upon our current political experiences and point out trends and possibilities for the future.

The political theory deals with the ideas and principles that shape constitutions, governments and social life.

We study certain values and principles and ideals also which inspired people and guided policies like democracy, freedom, equality, etc.

Politics:

• Politics may have different ideas to be argued upon.
• Politics is associated with the satisfaction of wants.
• Politics is sometimes considered to be what politicians do. But it associates them with teams due to their false commitments, etc.
• Politics promotes the interests of an individual by all means.

Political Science:

• It is a scientific study of political ideas and principles.
• Political Science shapes the government and public opinion in a well-mannered way.
• Political science examines the defections, false commitment and false promises made by politicians.
• Political Science examines the validity of concepts of equality, justice, freedom, democracy, secularism, etc.
• The philosophers in political science can generate the new ideas to mould the society.

Politics:

• Politics may have different ideas to be argued upon.
• Politics is associated with the satisfaction of wants.
• Politics is sometimes considered to be what politicians do. But it associates them with teams due to their false commitments, etc.
• Politics promotes the interests of an individual by all means.

Political Science:

• It is a scientific study of political ideas and principles.
• Political Science shapes the government and public opinion in a well-mannered way.
• Political science examines the defections, false commitment and false promises made by politicians.
• Political Science examines the validity of concepts of equality, justice, freedom, democracy, secularism, etc.
• The philosophers in political science can generate the new ideas to mould the society.

Bureaucracy, generally, means government by the officers and it includes all the government servants who hold office on permanent basis till they retire at a fixed age. Head of the State and ministers determine the policy. Permanent government servants run the administration and enforce the laws according to that policy. There is no effect on them of the change of head of state and the ministers.

Bureaucracy has been derived from the French word ‘bureau’ which means ‘desk’. Thus, bureaucracy is a government which is run by the persons who sit on desks, means officers.