The Latin meaning of the word ‘Habeas Corpus’ is ‘To have the body of.’ This writ is used to enforce the fundamental right of individual liberty against unlawful detention. Through Habeas Corpus, Supreme Court/High Court orders one person who has arrested another person to bring the body of the latter before the court.

Facts about Habeas Corpus in India:

• The Supreme Court or High Court can issue this writ against both private and public authorities.
• Habeas Corpus can not be issued in the following cases:
  • When detention is lawful
  • When the proceeding is for contempt of a legislature or a court
  • Detention is by a competent court
  • Detention is outside the jurisdiction of the court

The permanent executive or the civil services is comprised of civil services officials. Following are thier main functions:

• Working under the authority of the political executive.
• Assisting the ministers in carrying out the day-to-day administration of the ministries.
• Providing in-depth and specialised advice to the ministers on various important policy matters.
• Serving the political executive (and by extension the people of India) with utmost integrity and unbiased approach.

Promulgation is the formal proclamation or declaration that a new statutory or administrative law is enacted after its final approval. In some jurisdictions, this additional step is necessary before the law can take effect.

After a new law is approved, it is announced to the public through the publication of government gazettes and/or on official government websites.

Equal Treatment of Equals:

• This indicates the principle of treating people equally.

• All individuals share certain characteristics as human beings. Therefore, they deserve to be treated equally and provided with equal rights.

• It includes civil rights like right to life, liberty and property, political rights like right to vote and social rights related to equal social opportunities.

• It also prohibits discrimination on the grounds of class, caste, gender and race.

• For example, two individuals from different backgrounds should be paid same reward for the same kind of job.

Proportionate justice:

• This principle indicates rewarding people in proportion to the scale and quality of their effort.

• It is just to reward different jobs differently on the basis of efforts and skills required and the danger involved.

• Thus, proportionality provides balance to the principle of equal treatment.

• The reward and compensation for a surgeon and an architect varies according to the skill that is required in their job.

Recognition of Special Needs:

• This principle is based on distributing rewards and duties on the basis of special needs of people.

• On the basis of factors such as age, physical disabilities and lack of access to good education or health care, special treatment is given in many countries.

• People with special needs or disabilities are treated unequal in some particular respect and therefore are provided with some deserving and special help.

• A physically challenged person getting a reserved seat in bus is an example of principle of recognition of special needs.

Both Marxism and liberalism grew out of the European Enlightenment and have influenced each others development. Both share a respect for liberty and equality but their relationship to these ideals is fundamentally different.

Liberalism is a worldview fundamentally based around abstract values and philosophical idealism, with an emphasis on understanding political, economic and social phenomena from an individualist perspective. From the liberal perspective, issues in society and the economy are often given disjointed solutions that focus on individual behavior. As an idealist worldview, liberalism sees ideals like liberty and equality as things to strive towards.

Marxism is a fundamentally materialist worldview with a systemic approach to understanding political, social and economic phenomena. This means that issues in society are understood in their relation to the structure of society, and proposed solutions take systemic issues into account. As a materialist worldview, Marxism is purportedly scientific and unconcerned with ethical ideals - values like equality or liberty are seen to be outgrowths of material development and achievable with specific levels of economic development, but not necessarily things to blindly strive toward on the basis morality. This perspective extends down to individual: humans are understood to be primarily driven by material interests rather than spiritual or philosophical interests, though the latter is predicted to become predominant in a highly-developed state of affairs where material needs are taken care of (i.e. a communist society).

As a result of their different methodologies, Marxism understands the issues of capitalism to be structural in nature therefore advocates for systemic change - a transition to socialism, an economic system that does not suffer from the structural defects of capitalism because it replaces the dynamics that give rise to the defects in the first place.

Social constraints are the external controls on individual freedom maintained by the society. The government, as a part of the society, controls individual freedom through laws that embodies the power of the government and are legitimatised. Constraints on freedom are also a result of social inequality.

Humanism was a restoration of true civilization after the Dark Age that had set in after the fall of the Roman Empire.

The main features of humanism are given below.

1. Humanism stressed on the individual skills. A person with many skills and interests have been referred to as the Renaissance man. The emerging belief in individual potential helped to identify a town by its citizens.

2. The Humanist thought had a very different idea of history. According to this thought only humanism could revive the long past true civilisation. This revival would enable to end the Dark Age that Europe was then passing through.

3. The establishment of the New Age would mark an end to the period of the supremacy of the Church. The basis of humanism is naturalism, which is antithetical to the beliefs of Christianity.

4. Humanism revived the classical Greek literature. The works of Aristotle and Plato were translated. Along with these subjects modern faculties such as chemistry, mathematics, natural science and astronomy also became a part of the college curriculum.

5. Not only formal education but also art, architecture and books were effective mediums of transmitting humanist ideas. Drawing realistic paintings and sculpting perfectly proportioned figures of men and women were expressions of humanism. Painters and sculptors started to rely on anatomy, geometry and physics to recreate reality.

1. Arab's Contribution in the Field of Science :

(i) The Arabs produced great physicians like Al-Razi and Ibn-Sina who respectively discovered the true nature of smallpox and tuberculosis. They organised hospitals, for the treatment of the infectious diseases.

ii). In Mathematics the Arabs spread the knowledge of numbers and trigonometry in the other regions of the world Omar-Khayyam a great Mathematicians of Arab devised a calendar which is more accurate than the present Christian Calendar.

iii). The Arab astronomers believed that the earth revolves round the sun.

iv). In Chemistry, the Arbs discovered many new compounds like sodium carbonate, silver nitrate, Nitric and sulphuric acids.

2. Arab's Contribution in the Field of Culture :

i). In literature, the Arab classic "The Arabian Nights" a collection of 1001 stories "Rubaiyat" by Omar Khayyam, "Shahnama" by Al-Firdausi are famous all over the world.

ii). The buildings of the Arabs and bulb like domes, small minarets, horse shoe arches and twisted columns.

3. Arab's Contribution in other Fields :

i). The Arabs propounded the ideal of equality and brotherhood.

ii). Arab carpets, leather work, metal work, beautiful, swords and enamelled glass.

The Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles of State Policy and Fundamental Duties are sections of the Constitution of India that prescribe the fundamental obligations of the states to its citizens and the duties and the rights of the citizens to the State.[note 1] These sections comprise a constitutional bill of rights for government policy-making and the behaviour and conduct of citizens. These sections are considered vital elements of the constitution, which was developed between 1947 and 1949 by the Constituent Assembly of India.

The Fundamental Rights are defined as the basic human rights of all citizens. These rights, defined in Part III of the Constitution, applied irrespective of race, place of birth, religion, caste, creed, or gender. They are enforceable by the courts, subject to specific restrictions. The Directive Principles of State Policy are guidelines for the framing of laws by the government. These provisions, set out in Part IV of the Constitution, are not enforceable by the courts, but the principles on which they are based are fundamental guidelines for governance that the State is expected to apply in framing policies and passing laws.

The Fundamental Duties are defined as the moral obligations of all citizens to help promote a spirit of patriotism and to uphold the unity of India. These duties set out in Part IV–A of the Constitution, concern individuals and the nation. Like the Directive Principles, they are not enforceable by courts unless otherwise made enforceable by parliamentary law.

Proportional representation is a system used to elect a country's government. If no party wins over 50% of the vote, then a coalition government usually has to be formed, where a government is formed from two or more different political parties, who together have over 50% of the seats in parliament. Voting at Presidential, Dáil, Seanad, European and local elections is by secret ballot on the principle of proportional representation (PR) in multi-seat constituencies (Ireland is a single constituency at a Presidential election), each elector having a single transferable vote (STV).

1. Rajya Sabha reflects a federal character by representing the units of the Union. While, Lok Sabha represents spirit of people.
2. Both Houses plays positive role in matters of Legislations.
3. They check on abuses of democracy in their own defined jurisdictions.
4. Two houses checks the tendency of Government to take populist measures under an unstable political Scenario.
5. Rajya Sabha also poses a moral authority over a care taker government (when LS dissolves)
6. Two vetoes (from two houses) on the matter of policies of Government give Democracy wider scope to become healthier.
7. Second Chamber members are much different from Elected Member of Lok Sabha. Most of RS members are experts in their field, like businessmen, historians, journalist, actors, law expert, etc they helps in ushering and presenting aspirations of all kind freedoms provided by constitution of India in the parliament

The emergency situation when Lok Sabha is dissolved, only Rajya Sabha can take vital decisions in interest of nation and States. Example Kargil War(1999).

The Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha are the two houses of the parliament. The Lok Sabha is known as the lower house of the parliament while the Rajya Sabha is the upper house of the parliament. On the other hand, the Rajya Sabha is a permanent house. After every two years, one third of the members of the Rajya Sabha retire.

Global politics, also known as world politics, names both the discipline that studies the political and economic patterns of the world and the field that is being studied. At the centre of that field are the different processes of political globalization in relation to questions of social power. Politics (from Greek: Πολιτικά, politiká, 'affairs of the cities') is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations between individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The academic study of politics is referred to as political science.

Rights are legal and moral entitlements or claims of a person over other fellow beings, over society and over the government. A claim cannot become a right unless it is recognized by society. Claims that are recognized by society as rightful form the basis of rights. With changing times, the scope and meaning of rights also changes. Claims need to be reasonable, recognized by society and sanctioned by law. Rights are the basic requirement to sustain a democracy.