The belief that "There is no god but God, and Muhammad is the Messenger of God" is central to Islam. This phrase, written in Arabic, is often prominently featured in architecture and a range of objects, including the Qur'an, Islam's holy book of divine revelations.

These sources are the following:

• Chronicles
• Biographies
• Eye witness report
• The Quran
• Archaeological evidences
• Sayings of Prophet Muhammad

Mongol empire, empire founded by Genghis Khan in 1206. Originating from the Mongol heartland in the Steppe of central Asia, by the late 13th century it spanned from the Pacific Ocean in the east to the Danube River and the shores of the Persian Gulf in the west. At its peak, it covered some 9 million square miles (23 million square km) of territory, making it the largest contiguous land empire in world history. In 1227 the Mongol dominions stretched over the vast regions between the Caspian and China seas, bordering in the north on the sparsely populated forest belt of Siberia and in the south on the Pamirs, Tibet, and the central plains of China. This empire contained a multitude of different peoples, religions, and civilizations, and it is only natural to seek the motivating force behind this unparalleled expansion. Certainly the traditional antagonism between pastoral, nomadic steppe-dwellers and settled agricultural civilizations has to be taken into account. Raids by nomads from the steppe had always occurred from time to time wherever powerful nomadic tribes lived in the proximity of settled populations, but they had not usually taken on the dimensions of a bid for world hegemony or domination as in the case of Genghis Khan’s invasions.

Cai Wenji

There were many factors that support Britain to become the epicentre of the Industrial Revolution. Important factors are given below:

1. Continental European countries could not adopt Industrial Revolution as early as Britain because Europe faced political instability.

2. French Revolution and Napoleonic wars kept the Europe engaged. Belgium was first to follow British footsteps. Germany also has its ‘Ruhr’ are Industrialized. Soon other European nations followed suit.

3. Britain had adequate capital which was accumulated through colonialism.

4. Disappearance of serfdom (a person who is bound to the land and owned by the feudal lord) and ‘enclosure movement’ provided huge surplus agricultural labour which looked for employment and became source of cheap labour.

• The imperial success of the Mongols attracted many travelers. These individuals came from a variety of backgrounds – <i>Buddhist,Confucian, Christian, Turkish and Muslim</i>. Many of them produced sympathetic accounts and others hostile.
• The most outstanding sources of Mongols are Igor de Rachewiltz’s ‘The Secret History of Mongol’ and ‘the Travelogues of Marco Polo’.

The Romans maintained a paid professional army. The soldiers had to put in a minimum of 25 years of service. The army was the largest single organized body in the empire. Its strength had become 600,000 by the fourth century. The army had the power to determine the fate of the emperors. The success of the emperor depended on his control of the army.

69 BCE was a tumultuous year. Four emperors mounted the throne in quick succession in that year. Other than that, the first two centuries were free from civil war and were relatively stable. Succession to the throne was based on family ascent. A natural or adopted heir could be made the next emperor. Even the army strongly followed this practice.

1. Arab's Contribution in the Field of Science :

(i) The Arabs produced great physicians like Al-Razi and Ibn-Sina who respectively discovered the true nature of smallpox and tuberculosis. They organised hospitals, for the treatment of the infectious diseases.

ii). In Mathematics the Arabs spread the knowledge of numbers and trigonometry in the other regions of the world Omar-Khayyam a great Mathematicians of Arab devised a calendar which is more accurate than the present Christian Calendar.

iii). The Arab astronomers believed that the earth revolves round the sun.

iv). In Chemistry, the Arbs discovered many new compounds like sodium carbonate, silver nitrate, Nitric and sulphuric acids.

2. Arab's Contribution in the Field of Culture :

i). In literature, the Arab classic "The Arabian Nights" a collection of 1001 stories "Rubaiyat" by Omar Khayyam, "Shahnama" by Al-Firdausi are famous all over the world.

ii). The buildings of the Arabs and bulb like domes, small minarets, horse shoe arches and twisted columns.

3. Arab's Contribution in other Fields :

i). The Arabs propounded the ideal of equality and brotherhood.

ii). Arab carpets, leather work, metal work, beautiful, swords and enamelled glass.

The Crisis of the Fourteenth Century

In Europe economic expansion slowed down. This was due to three factors:

1. In Northern Europe, by the end of the thirteenth century the warm summers of the previous 300 years had given way to bitterly cold summers. Seasons for growing crops were reduced by a month.
2. Trade was hit by a severe shortage of metal money because of a shortfall in the output of silver mines in Austria and Serbia. This forced government to reduce the silver content of the currency and to mix it with cheaper metals.
3. Ships carrying goods from distant countries had started arriving in European ports. The ships came with rats carrying deadly bubonic plague infection (the Black Death).

• Education spread in Italy by the 13th and 14th centuries.
• Humanism as a subject was first taught in Italian schools, colleges and universities. Italian people were made aware of humanist views and ideas.
• Universities were first of all developed here to spread education.
• A number of classical books were composed by Roman and Greek scholars.

The Canadian Constitution recognizes three groups of Aboriginal peoples: Indians (more commonly referred to as First Nations), Inuit and Métis. These are three distinct peoples with unique histories, languages, cultural practices and spiritual beliefs. They respected Native territories, their ways, and treated them as the human beings they were. The Natives, in turn, treated the French as trusted friends. More intermarriages took place between French settlers and Native Americans than with any other European group. ... The Natives did not appreciate any of this.

The term Third Order signifies, in general, lay members of religious orders, who do not necessarily live in community and yet can claim to wear the habit and participate in the good works of some great order. Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism and Anglicanism all recognize Third Orders. The Third Order consists of religious and lay men and women who try to emulate St. Francis's spirit by performing works of teaching, charity, and social service.

In 380 CE, the emperor Theodosius issued the Edict of Thessalonica, which made Christianity, specifically Nicene Christianity, the official religion of the Roman Empire. Most other Christian sects were deemed heretical, lost their legal status, and had their properties confiscated by the Roman state. The ancient Romans have many lasting effects on the modern world, such as, but not limited to: Creation of law, language influences, art, literature, infrastructure, and city planning. Rome also had an impact on the spread of Christianity. A major influence on modern time was the Roman system of law.

Europeans developed the system of feudalism to help provide economic and social stability and safety. Feudalism​ The feudal system arose as a way of protecting property and creating stability. It was based on loyalty and personal relationships. Monarchs gave fiefs to lords, their most important vassals. The people of western Europe needed a source of protection from many invading threats with order. As a result, they invented a system in which people of higher classes provided protection for lower classes in return for their loyalty to them.