The culture of ancient Rome existed throughout the almost 1200-year history of the civilization of Ancient Rome. The term refers to the culture of the Roman Republic, later the Roman Empire, which at its peak covered an area from Lowland Scotland and Morocco to the Euphrates.

Life in ancient Rome revolved around the city of Rome, its famed seven hills, and its monumental architecture such as the Colosseum, Trajan's Forum, and the Pantheon. The city also had several theaters, gymnasia, and many taverns, baths, and brothels. Throughout the territory under ancient Rome's control, residential architecture ranged from very modest houses to country villas, and in the capital city of Rome, there were imperial residences on the elegant Palatine Hill, from which the word palace is derived. The vast majority of the population lived in the city center, packed into insulae (apartment blocks).

The solidus was introduced by Diocletian in AD 301 as a replacement of the aureus, composed of relatively solid gold, minted 60 to the Roman pound.

Iberian Uniqueness in the Arab Invasion of Spain

In the spring of the year AD 711, the Visigothic kingdom of Iberia was invaded and conquered by an army from the nearby Muslim Empire.

• During 612-32, the Prophet Muhammad preached the worship of a single God, Allah, and the membership of a single community of believers (umma). This was the origin of Islam.
• Around 612, Muhammad declared himself to be the messenger (rasul) of God who had been commanded to preach that Allah alone should be worshipped.
• In 622, Muhammad was forced to migrate with his followers to Medina. Muhammad’s journey from Mecca (hijra) was a turning point in the history of Islam, with the year of his arrival in Medina marking the beginning of the Muslim calendar.

Large expansion of Roman territory was in a less advanced state. Transhumance was spread in the countryside of Numidia. These pastoral and semi-nomadic communities were often on the move, carrying their oven-shaped huts (called mapalia). As Roman estates expanded in North Africa, the pastures of those communities were hugely reduced and their movements more tightly regulated. Even in Spain the north was much less developed, and inhabited largely by a Celtic-speaking peasantry that lived in hilltop villages called castella.

Large expansion of Roman territory was in a less advanced state. Transhumance was spread in the countryside of Numidia. These pastoral and semi-nomadic communities were often on the move, carrying their oven-shaped huts (called mapalia). As Roman estates expanded in North Africa, the pastures of those communities were hugely reduced and their movements more tightly regulated. Even in Spain the north was much less developed, and inhabited largely by a Celtic-speaking peasantry that lived in hilltop villages called castella.

The animal husbandry i.e.. livestock rearing includes cattle breeding, goats, fowl rearing, etc. Livestock production provides stable income, food security, fuel and nutrition for the family, in rural areas. In India, more than 70 million small and marginal farmers have got alternate livelihood options from animal husbandry.

If the distribution of livestock rearing is taken into consideration, the poultry accounts for the largest share. The other animals which include camels, asses, horses, etc., are also found remunerative. In India, we have about 28.7 crores of cattle including 9 crores of buffaloes.

The performance of Indian diary sector has been remarkable in the past few decades. This is mainly because of implementation of’Operation Flood. It is a system whereby all the farmers can pool their milk produced according to different gradings and the same is processed and marketed to urban centres. In this, the farmers are assured of fair price and minimum income from the supply of milk to urban areas.

The animal husbandry is undertaken to develop organic farming by developing green manure and the animal waste is being used to produce gobar gas in rural areas. Meat, eggs, wool and other byproducts are also emerging as important productive sectors in animal husbandry. 

Under the influence of Greek philosophy and science, the Islamic philosophers developed an alternative vision of God and the universe. In the schools of Alexandria, Syria and Mesopotamia, Greek philosophy, mathematics and medicine were taught along with other subjects.

The belief that "There is no god but God, and Muhammad is the Messenger of God" is central to Islam. This phrase, written in Arabic, is often prominently featured in architecture and a range of objects, including the Qur'an, Islam's holy book of divine revelations.

These sources are the following:

• Chronicles
• Biographies
• Eye witness report
• The Quran
• Archaeological evidences
• Sayings of Prophet Muhammad

Mongol empire, empire founded by Genghis Khan in 1206. Originating from the Mongol heartland in the Steppe of central Asia, by the late 13th century it spanned from the Pacific Ocean in the east to the Danube River and the shores of the Persian Gulf in the west. At its peak, it covered some 9 million square miles (23 million square km) of territory, making it the largest contiguous land empire in world history. In 1227 the Mongol dominions stretched over the vast regions between the Caspian and China seas, bordering in the north on the sparsely populated forest belt of Siberia and in the south on the Pamirs, Tibet, and the central plains of China. This empire contained a multitude of different peoples, religions, and civilizations, and it is only natural to seek the motivating force behind this unparalleled expansion. Certainly the traditional antagonism between pastoral, nomadic steppe-dwellers and settled agricultural civilizations has to be taken into account. Raids by nomads from the steppe had always occurred from time to time wherever powerful nomadic tribes lived in the proximity of settled populations, but they had not usually taken on the dimensions of a bid for world hegemony or domination as in the case of Genghis Khan’s invasions.

Cai Wenji

There were many factors that support Britain to become the epicentre of the Industrial Revolution. Important factors are given below:

1. Continental European countries could not adopt Industrial Revolution as early as Britain because Europe faced political instability.

2. French Revolution and Napoleonic wars kept the Europe engaged. Belgium was first to follow British footsteps. Germany also has its ‘Ruhr’ are Industrialized. Soon other European nations followed suit.

3. Britain had adequate capital which was accumulated through colonialism.

4. Disappearance of serfdom (a person who is bound to the land and owned by the feudal lord) and ‘enclosure movement’ provided huge surplus agricultural labour which looked for employment and became source of cheap labour.

• The imperial success of the Mongols attracted many travelers. These individuals came from a variety of backgrounds – <i>Buddhist,Confucian, Christian, Turkish and Muslim</i>. Many of them produced sympathetic accounts and others hostile.
• The most outstanding sources of Mongols are Igor de Rachewiltz’s ‘The Secret History of Mongol’ and ‘the Travelogues of Marco Polo’.