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Meghna Thapar 6 years ago
Two biologically important compounds that contain both oxygen and nitrogen are: DNA, protein, carbohydrates.
Posted by Prakshi Chauhan 6 years ago
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Meghna Thapar 6 years ago
The mouth parts are at the anterior end of the head. The mouth parts consist of a labrum (upper lip), a pair of mandibles, a pair of maxillae and a labium (lower lip). A median flexible lobe lies in the cavity which is enclosed by the mouth parts. This lobe acts as tongue (hypopharynx).
Posted by Aarti Vishvkarma 6 years ago
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Meghna Thapar 6 years ago
The various endocrine glands in humans are hypothalamus, pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, thymus, pancreas, adrenal glands, ovary (in female) and testis (in males).
|
Hormone |
Endocrine gland |
Functions |
|
Growth hormone |
Pituitary |
Regulates growth and development of body. |
|
Thyroxin |
Thyroid gland |
Controls carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism. |
|
Adrenaline |
Adrenal gland |
Prepares the body to deal with emergency situations. |
|
Insulin |
Pancreas |
Regulates blood sugar levels. |
|
Testosterone |
Testis |
Causes development of sexual organs and secondary sexual characteristics in males. |
|
Oestrogen |
Ovary |
Causes development of sexual organs and secondary sexual characteristics in females. |
Posted by R Jyotsna 6 years ago
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Posted by Puneet Sengar 6 years ago
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Yogita Ingle 6 years ago
- Kreb’s cycle takes place in the mitochondrial matrix.
- Several intermediate compounds are formed, which contain three carboxylic groups and therefore the process is called as tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA).
- First, the condensation of acetyl group with oxaloacetic acid (OAA) and water takes place to yield citric acid, catalysed by the enzyme citrate synthase and a molecule of CoA is released.
- Citrate is then isomerised to isocitrate, which is followed by two successive steps of decarboxylation, leading to the formation of α-ketoglutaric acid and then succinyl-CoA.
- Succinyl-CoA is oxidised to OAA allowing the cycle to continue and during the conversion of succinyl-CoA to succinic acid a molecule of GTP is synthesised.
- In a coupled reaction, GTP is converted to GDP with the simultaneous synthesis of ATP from ADP.
Pyruvic acid + 4 NAD+ + FAD+ + 2H2O + ADP + Pi à 3CO2 + 4NADH + 4H+ + FADH2 + ATP
- During the process, 8NADH2, 2FADH2, 2 GTPs are formed.
Posted by Arathy Anil 6 years, 1 month ago
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Yogita Ingle 6 years ago
- The particularly large cells around the vascular bundles of the C4 pathway plants are called bundle sheath cells, and the leaves which have such anatomy are said to have ‘Kranz’ anatomy.
- Kranz’ means ‘wreath’ and is a reflection of the arrangement of cells.
- The bundle sheath cells may form several layers around the vascular bundles.
- Bundle sheath cells are characterised by having a large number of chloroplasts, thick walls impervious to gaseous exchange and no intercellular spaces.
- The presence of the bundle sheath would help to identify the C4
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Posted by Yuvraj Singh Ranawat 6 years, 1 month ago
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Meghna Thapar 6 years ago
Facilitated diffusion is a passive movement of molecules across the cell membrane from the region of higher concentration to the region of lower concentration by means of a carrier molecule. Example - In the human body, glucose molecules, sodium and potassium ions use carrier proteins to pass through the cell membranes.
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Meghna Thapar 6 years ago
There are different proteins in the membrane, which play a major role in both active as well as passive transport. Active transport is carried out by membrane – protein. In protein pumps energy is used to carry substances across the cell membrane. These pumps can transport substances from a low concentration to a high concentration (‘uphill’ transport). Transport rate reaches a maximum when all the protein transporters are being used or are saturated. The carrier protein is very specific in what it carries across the membrane. These proteins are sensitive to inhibitors that react with protein side chains
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Meghna Thapar 6 years ago
Actin monomers are called globular actin or G-actin. They are fairly globe-shaped in structure. At the right concentration of monomers, they can polymerize head to tail to form filamentous actin or F-actin. F-actin threads associate with each other in a thin double-helical structure. Because the G-actin monomers are arranged in the same orientation, actin filaments have two distinct ends. The ends are called plus (+) and minus (-). The plus end grows about 5-10 times faster than the minus end. The plus and minus ends are also important because motor proteins such as myosin move along the actin filament only in one direction. This is important in muscle contraction.
Posted by Ashutosh Bind 6 years, 1 month ago
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Meghna Thapar 6 years ago
The citric acid cycle (CAC) – also known as the TCA cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle) or the Krebs cycle is a series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to release stored energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, into adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and carbon dioxide.
The product of this reaction, acetyl-CoA, is the starting point for the citric acid cycle. Acetyl-CoA may also be obtained from the oxidation of fatty acids. Below is a schematic outline of the cycle:
i. The citric acid cycle begins with the transfer of a two-carbon acetyl group from acetyl-CoA to the four-carbon acceptor compound (oxaloacetate) to form a six-carbon compound (citrate).
ii. The citrate then goes through a series of chemical transformations, losing two carboxyl groups as CO2. The carbons lost as CO2 originate from oxaloacetate. The carbons donated by acetyl-CoA become part of the oxaloacetate carbon backbone after the first turn of the citric acid cycle.
iii. Most of the energy made available by the oxidative steps of the cycle is transferred as energy-rich electrons to NAD+, forming NADH. For each acetyl group that enters the citric acid cycle, three molecules of NADH are produced. The citric acid cycle includes a series of oxidation reduction reaction in mitochondria .
iv. In addition, electrons from the succinate oxidation step are transferred first to the FAD cofactor of succinate dehydrogenase, reducing it to FADH2, and eventually to ubiquinone (Q) in the mitochondrial membrane, reducing it to ubiquinol (QH2) which is a substrate of the electron transfer chain at the level of Complex III.
v. For every NADH and FADH2 that are produced in the citric acid cycle, 2.5 and 1.5 ATP molecules are generated in oxidative phosphorylation, respectively. At the end of each cycle, the four-carbon oxaloacetate has been regenerated, and the cycle continues.
Posted by Manish Nayak 6 years, 1 month ago
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Meghna Thapar 5 years, 8 months ago
In botany, secondary growth is the growth that results from cell division in the cambia or lateral meristems and that causes the stems and roots to thicken, while primary growth is growth that occurs as a result of cell division at the tips of stems and roots, causing them to elongate, and gives rise to primary tissue. Secondary growth occurs in many roots and usually results in the thickening of the root diameter by the addition of vascular tissue. Initiation of secondary growth occurs when cells in the residual procambium and parts of the pericyle begin to make periclinal divisions. Primary growth produces growth in length and development of lateral appendages. Secondary growth is the formation of secondary tissues from lateral meristems. ... Secondary growth occurs in perennial gymnosperms and dicots such as trees and shrubs. It is also found in the woody stems of some herbs.
Posted by Suddu Pokhrel 6 years, 1 month ago
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Meghna Thapar 5 years, 8 months ago
Prophase 1 is essentially the crossing over and recombination of genetic material between non sister chromatids - this results in the genetically unidentical, haploid daughter chromatid cells. Prophase I is divided into five phases: leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene, and diakinesis.
Chromosomes become visible, crossing-over occurs, the nucleolus disappears, the meiotic spindle forms, and the nuclear envelope disappears. At the start of prophase I, the chromosomes have already duplicated. During prophase I, they coil and become shorter and thicker and visible under the light microscope.
Prophase is the first stage of mitosis. In prophase, chromosomes condense and become visible. spindle fibers emerge from the centrosomes.
In prometaphase,
- chromosomes continue to condense.
- kinetochores appear at the centromeres.
- mitotic spindle microtubules attach to kinetochores.
- centrosomes move toward opposite poles.
Posted by Ritika Gupta 6 years, 1 month ago
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Posted by Ritika Gupta 6 years, 1 month ago
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Yogita Ingle 6 years, 1 month ago
Casparian strips are found in the endodermal cell walls of plant roots. It prevents water movement from returning to the cortex from pericycle, consequently a positive hydrostatic pressure is established in vascular tissue.
Posted by Kaif Sid 6 years, 1 month ago
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Yogita Ingle 6 years, 1 month ago
In all mammals, the salivary glands functions as an exocrine gland, which produces saliva through a system of ducts. Among all other mammals, humans have hundreds of salivary glands and are present within the mouth. The basic secretion units of salivary glands are called acini and are composed of clusters of cells.
Posted by Princi Pandya 6 years, 1 month ago
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Yogita Ingle 6 years ago
Periderm is a component of secondary growth that is formed towards the surface of stems and roots, having phellem, phellogen and phelloderm. Phellogen or cork cambium develops in a subepidermal layer in the stem and from pericycle in roots, its cells undergo bipolar division. The cells formed on the outer side undergo suberization, deposition of tannins and death of cellular contents. The outer tissue of dead suberised cells is called cork or phellem. At places, it contains lenticels or aerating pores having loosely arranged suberised complementary cells. Cells formed by phellogen on the inner side constitute secondary cortex or phelloderm.
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